CERN
CERN, the European Organization for Nuclear Research, runs the largest particle physics laboratory in the world. Its biggest machine asks engineers to do something that sounds impossible. Stephen Myers, the director for accelerators and technology, compared the task to "firing two needles across the Atlantic and getting them to hit each other." That image says a lot about a place where precision is measured against the scale of an ocean.
Yet CERN is more than a collection of machines. It is also an organization that began as a council of governments, kept a name that no longer matched its words, and wrote a promise to share its results into its founding paper.
Why would governments pool their money for pure physics? What does a collision of particles actually reveal? And how did a physics laboratory end up handing the world a new way to browse information? The answers start with a name that outlived its meaning.
In 1952, twelve European governments created a provisional body called the Conseil Européen pour la Recherche Nucléaire, or European Council for Nuclear Research. Its task was to prepare the laboratory. During those early years the council worked at the University of Copenhagen under the direction of Niels Bohr, before moving to its present site near Geneva.
The sixth session of the council met in Paris from the 29th of June to the 1st of July 1953. There, twelve states signed the convention that would establish the organization, subject to ratification. The founding members were Belgium, Denmark, France, the Federal Republic of Germany, Greece, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom and Yugoslavia. The convention was ratified on the 29th of September 1954.
Sir Benjamin Lockspeiser became the first president. Edoardo Amaldi served as general secretary in the early stage, while operations were still provisional. Felix Bloch was named the first Director-General in 1954.
Ratification also changed the official name to Organisation européenne pour la recherche nucléaire, the European Organization for Nuclear Research. The provisional council was dissolved, but the old acronym stayed. Lew Kowarski, a former director of CERN, recalled the reason. A strict abbreviation of the new name could have come out as the awkward OERN. Werner Heisenberg answered that it could "still be CERN even if the name is not".
Seven accelerators and two decelerators form the chain of machines that CERN runs today, with a few smaller ones alongside. Each machine lifts the energy of a particle beam, then hands it to an experiment or to a stronger machine. Decelerators work in reverse. No experiment gets a place in this chain until one of CERN's scientific committees approves it.
Linac4 starts the proton journey by accelerating negative hydrogen ions to an energy of 160 MeV. Those ions enter the Proton Synchrotron Booster, which strips both electrons from each one. A bare nucleus, a single proton, is what remains. Linac4 now supplies every proton beam used in CERN's experiments.
Heavy ions follow another route. The LINAC 3 linear accelerator provides them at 4.2 MeV/Da and sends them to the Low Energy Ion Ring, commissioned in 2005 after being rebuilt from an older antiproton ring. From there the ions move into the Proton Synchrotron.
The 28 GeV Proton Synchrotron, built during 1954-1959, still works as a feeder for many experiments and for the Super Proton Synchrotron. That larger machine started operation in 1976 in a circular tunnel with a diameter of 2 kilometres. Designers aimed for 300 GeV, and upgrades later raised it to 450 GeV. It sends beams down its own lines to fixed-target experiments, currently COMPASS and NA62. It has also run as a proton-antiproton collider and accelerated electrons and positrons for the Large Electron-Positron Collider. Since 2008 it has injected protons and heavy ions into the Large Hadron Collider.
The On-Line Isotope Mass Separator, known as ISOLDE, studies unstable nuclei. Protons of 1.0-1.4 GeV from the Booster strike a target and produce radioactive ions. ISOLDE was first commissioned in 1967 and rebuilt with major upgrades in 1974 and 1992. Two newer facilities test ideas for the future. AWAKE is a proof-of-principle plasma wakefield accelerator, and CLEAR is a research and development facility for accelerators.
The 600 MeV Synchro-Cyclotron began running in 1957 and shut down in 1991. The original LINAC 1 operated from 1959 to 1992. The Intersecting Storage Rings, an early collider built from 1966 to 1971, kept running until 1984.
The Large Hadron Collider sits 100 metres underground, in the region between Geneva International Airport and the Jura mountains. Most of its length runs beneath the French side of the border. The ring reuses a circular tunnel of 27 km circumference that once held the Large Electron-Positron Collider. That earlier machine operated from 1989 to 2000 and was the largest of its kind. It was shut down in November 2000. The Proton Synchrotron and Super Proton Synchrotron now pre-accelerate the protons and lead ions that enter the ring.
Eight experiments sit along the collider: CMS, ATLAS, LHCb, MoEDAL, TOTEM, LHCf, FASER and ALICE. Each studies particle collisions from a different angle with different technology. Building them took extraordinary engineering. Each piece of the CMS detector weighed nearly 2,000 tons, so a special crane was rented from Belgium to lower the pieces into the cavern. In March 2005 the first of roughly 5,000 magnets went down a special shaft.
In August 2008 the first beams were injected. The first beam circulated through the entire ring on the 10th of September 2008. Days later the system failed because of a faulty magnet connection, and it was stopped for repairs on the 19th of September 2008. Operation resumed on the 20th of November 2009, when two beams, each at 3.5 teraelectronvolts, circulated successfully.
On the 30th of March 2010 two proton beams collided at 3.5 TeV per proton, giving a collision energy of 7 TeV. That was enough to begin the main research program, including the search for the Higgs boson. From March 2012 the energy rose to 8 TeV, or 4 TeV per proton. In early 2013 the machine was deactivated for two years so that engineers could strengthen the electrical connections between its magnets and make other upgrades.
The LHC restarted on the 5th of April 2015 for a second run. On the 10th of April 2015 the first ramp to a record 6.5 TeV took place. In 2016 the design collision rate was exceeded for the first time. Another two-year shutdown began at the end of 2018.
By October 2019 construction was under way on the High Luminosity LHC, a project meant to raise luminosity by an order of magnitude by 2026. LINAC 2, which accelerated protons to 50 MeV from 1978 to 2018, gave way to Linac4 as part of that work. Looking further ahead, CERN is studying CLIC, a linear electron-positron collider built on a new acceleration concept, and a larger version of the LHC currently named the Future Circular Collider.
In 1973 the Gargamelle bubble chamber at CERN revealed neutral currents. A decade later, in 1983, the UA1 and UA2 experiments discovered the W and Z bosons. The 1984 Nobel Prize for Physics went to Carlo Rubbia and Simon van der Meer for the developments behind those discoveries.
The Large Electron-Positron Collider produced milestones of its own. In 1989, running on the Z boson peak, it was used to determine the number of light neutrino families. Data collected on the Z resonance from 1990 to 1995 later supported a precision measurement of the Z lineshape, with results spanning 1995-2005. In 1992 the Nobel Prize for Physics went to CERN staff researcher Georges Charpak for his invention and development of particle detectors, in particular the multiwire proportional chamber.
The NA48 experiment found direct CP violation in 1999. In 2000 the Heavy Ion Programme discovered a new state of matter, quark-gluon plasma.
Antimatter became a laboratory subject in 1995. The Low Energy Antiproton Ring, commissioned in 1982, assembled the first true antimatter that year, nine atoms of antihydrogen, and the PS210 experiment is credited with the first creation of antihydrogen atoms. The ring closed in 1996, and the Antiproton Decelerator succeeded it. That decelerator slows antiprotons to about 10% of the speed of light for antimatter research. The Extra Low Energy Antiproton ring, known as ELENA, then slows them to lower energies still. In 2010 CERN isolated 38 atoms of antihydrogen. In 2011 antihydrogen was maintained for over 15 minutes.
In July 2012 CERN scientists announced the discovery of a boson with a mass around 125, consistent with the long-sought Higgs boson. In March 2013 CERN announced that measurements of the new particle allowed it to conclude that it was a Higgs boson. The 2013 Nobel Prize for Physics went to François Englert and Peter Higgs for the theoretical description of the Higgs mechanism, in the year after CERN experiments found the particle.
Not every headline survived. In September 2011 the OPERA Collaboration reported detecting neutrinos that seemed to travel faster than light, and the media took notice. Further tests showed the result was flawed. An incorrectly connected GPS synchronization cable was to blame.
CERN adopted TCP/IP for its intranet beginning in 1984, and that choice played an influential role in the spread of the protocol across Europe. In 1989 Tim Berners-Lee invented the World Wide Web at CERN. Built on hypertext, it was designed to help researchers share information. It grew out of his earlier CERN work on a database named ENQUIRE. A colleague, Robert Cailliau, became involved in 1990.
The first website was activated in 1991. On the 30th of April 1993, CERN announced that the web would be free to anyone. In 1995 the Association for Computing Machinery jointly honoured Berners-Lee and Cailliau. A copy of the first webpage, created by Berners-Lee, remains on the World Wide Web Consortium's website as a historical document.
The LHC brought a different computing problem: vast quantities of data. CERN streams that data to laboratories around the world for distributed processing on the LHC Computing Grid. In April 2005 a trial streamed 600 MB/s to seven sites. CERN has also hosted grid projects such as Enabling Grids for E-sciencE, and it hosts the CERN Internet Exchange Point, one of the two main internet exchange points in Switzerland. In 2016 it generated 49 petabytes of data.
People matter as much as bytes. In 2024 CERN had 2,704 scientific, technical and administrative staff and hosted about 12,406 users from institutions in more than 80 countries. It employs ten times more engineers and technicians than research physicists.
Sharing was written into the founding convention of 1953, which said that all results were to be published or made generally available. From the late 1950s the CERN Scientific Information Service distributed preprints. The librarian Luisella Goldschmidt-Clermont helped turn a culture of personal exchange into an institutional one, and so laid groundwork for what came to be called open science.
In 2014 CERN published an open access policy ensuring that publications by its authors appear with gold open access. An open data policy, endorsed by the ALICE, ATLAS, CMS and LHCb collaborations, covers public release of LHC data after a suitable embargo period. By 2018 the Sponsoring Consortium for Open Access Publishing in Particle Physics, which CERN started and runs, represented more than 3,000 libraries from 44 countries and three intergovernmental organizations. Its work converted articles in 11 leading journals to open access.
The tools go further than publishing. CERN Analysis Preservation helps researchers document the parts of a physics analysis. A service called REANA, short for Reusable Analyses, lets others run those preserved analyses again in the cloud.
A line of marker stones is the only obvious sign of the border that runs through the main Meyrin site, a western suburb of Geneva. The site, also called the West Area, was first built in Switzerland alongside the French border. It has spanned the border since 1965, and the French part remains under Swiss jurisdiction.
The larger tunnels lie almost entirely outside the main site, buried under French farmland. Surface sites dot their routes, holding experiment buildings, cryogenic plants and access shafts. Three of the experimental sites are in France, while ATLAS is in Switzerland. The largest is the Prévessin site, also called the North Area, which serves as the target station for non-collider experiments on the Super Proton Synchrotron.
Experiment names follow geography. NA32 was an experiment on so-called charmed particles at the Prévessin North Area. WA22 used the Big European Bubble Chamber at the Meyrin West Area to examine neutrino interactions. UA1 and UA2 took their names from the Underground Area. Most roads at Meyrin and Prévessin carry the names of famous physicists, including Niels Bohr, Richard Feynman, Albert Einstein and Wolfgang Pauli.
Membership has shifted over the decades. Yugoslavia quit in 1961. Spain joined in 1961, withdrew in 1969 and rejoined in 1983. Israel became a full member in January 2014, the first and so far the only full member outside Europe geographically. Contributions to the budget are computed from each member state's Net National Income at factor cost.
Associate membership has widened the circle. Turkey became an associate member on the 6th of May 2015, and Pakistan followed on the 31st of July 2015. India's agreement was ratified on the 16th of January 2017. Brazil became the first associate member in the Americas on the 13th of March 2024. Ireland was admitted on the 22nd of October 2025, and Chile became an associate member on the 2nd of April 2026.
Japan has been an observer since 1995, the United States since 1997 and Russia since 1993, though Russia has been suspended since March 2022. UNESCO has observed since 1954 and the European Commission since 1985. JINR has been an observer since 2014 and has been suspended since March 2022. CERN also inspired sister organizations, among them the European Molecular Biology Laboratory, the European Space Research Organisation and the European Southern Observatory. That last one shares a pension fund with CERN for its employees.
In 1972 the artist James Lee Byars became the first artist to visit CERN, and so far the only one to appear on the cover of the CERN Courier. Mariko Mori, Cerith Wyn Evans, John Berger and Anselm Kiefer were among those who came in later years. Their interest was in physics itself, long before any formal programme existed.
Popular culture has been just as curious. The band Les Horribles Cernettes, founded by women from CERN, picked its name to share initials with the LHC. The 2013 documentary Particle Fever follows the events around the 2012 Higgs discovery. In Dan Brown's 2000 novel Angels & Demons, and the 2009 film of the same name, a canister of antimatter is stolen from CERN. The anime Steins;Gate renames the laboratory SERN and casts it as a shadowy organization researching time travel. Conspiracy theories go further, accusing CERN of occult rituals and of opening portals into Hell or other dimensions.
A 2009 episode of South Park, "Pinewood Derby", sends Randy Marsh into the "Hadron Particle Super Collider in Switzerland" to steal a magnet for his son's racer. In 2015 a parody video rewrote the Howie Day song "Collide" from the viewpoint of a proton in the LHC. After seeing it, Day re-recorded the song with the new lyrics and released it in February 2017 with a video made during his visit to CERN.
CERN launched a Cultural Policy for engaging with the arts in 2011, and Arts at CERN began in 2012. Its research-led residencies have involved more than 200 artists from 80 countries, working with 400 physicists, engineers and staff. Between 500 and 800 applications arrive every year. The programmes include Collide, run with a partner city, Connect, run with Pro Helvetia, and Guest Artists, a short stay. In 2015 resident artist Ryoji Ikeda created the installation "Supersymmetry" from his time at CERN.
In 2004 the Indian government presented a two-metre statue of the Nataraja, the dancing form of the Hindu god Shiva, to mark a long association with India. A plaque quotes the physicist Fritjof Capra, who wrote that the metaphor of the cosmic dance "unifies ancient mythology, religious art and modern physics."
Visitors now meet CERN in person. The Microcosm museum closed permanently on the 18th of September 2022. The CERN Science Gateway, built by the Renzo Piano building workshop, opened in October 2023. It holds three permanent hands-on exhibitions, an auditorium of up to 800 seats and two education labs. The Discover CERN exhibition includes ELISA, a working 2 MeV proton accelerator. The Globe of Science and Innovation, open since late 2005, hosts special exhibits four times a week. Daily tours reach the Synchro-Cyclotron, which was made into a public exhibition in 2012-2013, and the superconducting magnet workshop. In the Our Universe exhibition, an art show called Exploring the unknown is scheduled to stay on display until October 2026.
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Updated
Common questions
What does CERN stand for?
CERN began as the French name Conseil Européen pour la Recherche Nucléaire, meaning European Council for Nuclear Research. The laboratory kept the acronym after the name changed to Organisation européenne pour la recherche nucléaire, the European Organization for Nuclear Research.
When was CERN established?
The convention establishing CERN was ratified on the 29th of September 1954 by twelve countries in Western Europe. It had been signed, subject to ratification, in Paris in 1953.
What is the Large Hadron Collider?
It is the world's largest and highest-energy particle collider. It sits 100 metres underground in a 27 km circular tunnel and has eight experiments located along its ring.
What did CERN contribute to the internet?
Tim Berners-Lee invented the World Wide Web at CERN in 1989. On the 30th of April 1993 CERN announced that the web would be free to anyone.
Did CERN find the Higgs boson?
In July 2012 CERN scientists announced a new boson consistent with the Higgs boson. In March 2013 CERN concluded from further measurements that it was a Higgs boson.
Did CERN measure neutrinos faster than light?
In September 2011 the OPERA Collaboration reported neutrinos that seemed faster than light. Further tests showed the result was flawed by an incorrectly connected GPS synchronization cable.
All sources
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