Ardeatine massacre

• 1. The Collapse Of Rome

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  On the 24th of July 1943, the Fascist Grand Council met for the first time since 1939 and voted no confidence in Benito Mussolini. King Victor Emanuel III appointed Marshal Pietro Badoglio to head a new military government the next day. He ordered his gendarmerie, the Carabinieri, to arrest and imprison Mussolini immediately. On the 13th of August 1943, Rome was bombed again as the Badoglio government began secret surrender negotiations with the Allies in Sicily. The Germans anticipated an Italian defection and moved more troops into Italy under Operation Achse. A coalition of Anti-Fascist parties formed the Committee of National Liberation to oppose them. On the 3rd of September 1943, the Badoglio government signed an unconditional surrender which U.S. General Eisenhower made public on the eve of the Fifth Army's amphibious landing at Salerno. That same night, the King and Badoglio fled the city for Pescara, leaving a leadership vacuum behind them. The Royal Italian Army was leaderless, poorly equipped, and in chaos despite outnumbering German soldiers three to one. After a failed resistance in the working-class neighbourhood at Porta San Paolo, the Germans occupied Rome. They announced the imposition of German military law with summary execution for violators. Three days later, Nazi commandos led by Waffen-SS officer Otto Skorzeny rescued Mussolini from Gran Sasso prison. In October 1943, the Nazis rounded up and deported the Jews of Rome for extermination at Auschwitz. They also made numerous mass roundups of non-Jewish male civilians for forced labour.

• 2. The Via Rasella Ambush

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  On the 23rd of March 1944, a column of the German 11th Company marched through Piazza di Spagna singing as they entered the narrow street of Via Rasella. An improvised explosive device consisting of 12 kilograms of TNT packed in a steel case waited inside a rubbish cart pushed into position by a Partisan disguised as a street cleaner. The fuse was lit when the police were forty seconds from the bomb. The blast caused the immediate deaths of 28 German SS policemen and may have killed two civilian bystanders including an eleven-year-old boy named Piero Zuccheretti. All twelve Partisans who carried out the attack succeeded in melting away into the crowd unscathed. More would die over the next few days until the death toll reached 32. The battalion had been raised in October 1943 from ethnic German speakers of South Tyrol, a territory Adolf Hitler had annexed to the German Reich after September betrayal by the Italian government. Many of its citizens had since opted for German citizenship. The soldiers of the battalion were veterans of the Royal Italian Army who had seen action on the Eastern Front and chosen service in the SS rather than face another tour with the Wehrmacht.

• 3. Retaliation Planning And Execution

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  SS Obersturmbannführer Herbert Kappler arrived at the scene soon afterwards to supervise the investigation that evening. He was summoned to headquarters of Luftwaffe Generalmajor Kurt Mälzer who decided that killings called for reprisals. They agreed that execution of ten Italians for each German policeman killed was a suitable ratio. Mälzer passed this recommendation to General Eberhard von Mackensen whose jurisdiction included Rome. General Mackensen endorsed the recommendation which staff of Commander-in-Chief South passed on to Oberkommando der Wehrmacht. That night, Adolf Hitler authorised the reprisal stipulating it be carried out within 24 hours. Kappler had only four prisoners sentenced to death plus 17 serving long sentences and 167 deemed worthy of death. Wilhelm Harster suggested making up numbers from 57 Jews also in Nazi custody. By noon on the 24th of March, Kappler had a list of 271 victims except for Jews listed simply as Jew. Questore Pietro Caruso offered some Italians from Regina Coeli prison including Maurizio Giglio who had been one of his own lieutenants before being unmasked as double agent Code named Cervo working for American OSS. Because of time limit imposed by Hitler, Mälzer and Kappler agreed victims would have to be shot in back of head at close range rather than conventional firing squad. Men of regiment Bozen refused to do it that way.

• 4. Victim Profiles And Demographics

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  A total of 335 Italian prisoners were taken five in excess of 330 called for during the massacre inside disused quarries near Via Ardeatina. The youngest victim was 15 years old while the oldest reached 70 years of age. Only 75 of the 335 selected for death in caves were Jewish despite common misconceptions about their predominance among victims. Victims comprised rich and poor doctors and lawyers workers and shopkeepers artists and artisans teachers and students men and teenage boys from every walk of life. One man of God named Padre Pietro Pappagallo became model for character in Roberto Rossellini's film Rome Open Street filmed in 1944. Another celebrated victim was aristocratic Colonel Giuseppe Montezemolo aged 44 who stayed underground disguised as professor or engineer after flight of King and Badoglio. He organized FMRC representing Badoglio Government with which he had been in continual radio contact until arrest on the 25th of January 1944. General Simone Simoni aged 64 endured torture with blowtorch yet never betrayed his network. Four more generals executed included Vito Artale Dardano Fenulli Roberto Lordi and Sabato Martelli Castaldi all members of Clandestine Military Front.

• 5. Post-War Justice And Perpetrator Fates

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  Pietro Caruso executed the 22nd of September 1944 died in Cologne the 26th of March 1985. Herbert Kappler sentenced to life imprisonment escaped August 1977 died the 9th of February 1978 at home in Soltau West Germany. Erich Priebke tried 1996 found not guilty acting under orders condemned to life imprisonment died while under house arrest the 11th of October 2013 age 100. Karl Hass convicted 1998 under house arrest died the 21st of April 2004. Albert Kesselring tried 1947 released 1952 died the 16th of July 1960. Eberhard von Mackensen tried 1947 released 1952 died the 19th of May 1969. Kurt Mälzer sentenced to death commuted died in prison the 24th of March 1952. Wilhelm Harster tried 1949 released 1953 pardoned 1969 died the 25th of December 1991. Celeste Di Porto known as Terror of Roman Ghetto served seven years of twelve year sentence for collaboration despite being Jewish herself. She denounced Roman Jewish boxer Lazzaro Anticoli killed during Fosse Ardeatine massacre. Priebke escaped from British prison camp 1946 fled Tyrol then Rome emigrated Argentina using false papers supplied by Vatican ratline. He was unmasked on camera 1994 during television interview by ABC reporter Sam Donaldson brought back Italy for trial.

• 6. Vatican Intelligence And Controversy

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  The Vatican's role came under scrutiny following publication Robert Katz's first book Death In Rome 1967 speculating Pope Pius XII had advance knowledge Nazi orders did little forestall it. In 1980 relevant document Governatorato found Vatican archives dated the 24th of March 1944 10:15 a.m. contained intelligence gathered hours after attack SS troops. It showed Vatican heard Germans planning punish Italian citizens tenfold SS deaths received only five hours before massacre took place. Informant statement short vague source provided no information time place logistics. Eugen Dollmann Himmler representative Rome and German Consul Eitel Möllhausen went Pope Pius personal liaison Pankratius Pfeiffer asking urge Pope intervene limit reprisals grounds inflame Roman population make occupation negotiations separate peace Allies even more difficult. Secretariat Vatican believed attack Via Rasella undertaken provoke occupiers excessively repressive act increase people hatred Germans. This what Pope liaison Padre Pancrazio told Vatican night before reprisal also opinion held Dollman Möllhausen. None seemed believe Partisans meant hurt Germans never extend popularity Resistance nor view Via Rasella attack legitimate act war. Instead viewed tragic act terrorism Communists as did Vatican some defenders still do. Afterward Pope debated whether protest massacre decided not because convents religious houses full refugees Communists Jews democrats anti-Fascists ex-generals etc.

• 7. Memorialization And Cultural Legacy

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  Design Fosse Ardeatine monument resulted national competition collaboration five architects Nello Aprile Cino Calcaprina Aldo Cardelli Mario Fiorentino Giuseppe Perugini two sculptors Francesco Coccia Mirko Basaldella. Massive bronze gate by Mirko Basaldella used ubiquitous barbed wire battlefields concentration camps inspiration merging moving curlicues Tree Life. Curved lines morph tangle limbs reaching out across each other awkwardly bent angles characteristic corpses. Colossal concrete statue three male figures standing together one hands tied behind backs ages man bound ideals fate youngest victim 15 oldest 70. Each face distinct expression portraying range emotions men likely felt marching deaths despair eyes half-closed resignation resolute distant stare. Memorial plaque outside entry caves reads Wayfarers thirsty liberty rounded up random street jail reprisal cast en masse slaughtered walled within pits Italians do not curse mothers brides do not weep children carry pride memory Holocaust fathers if slaughter purpose beyond revenge enshrine right human existence against crime murder. Inside former quarries two more plaques one tunnel another cave very end where massacre actually took place. Last phrase taken Penitential Psalm 130 most likely chosen parallel significance Christianity Judaism simultaneously speaking 260 Christians 75 Jews killed buried side by side text written Latin Hebrew Clamavi ad Te Domine. Every year anniversary slaughter presence senior officials Italian Republic solemn state commemoration held monument honour fallen. Each year 335 names called simple roll call dead reinforce 335 discrete individuals symbolise collective entity.