Scythians
In the 9th century BC, a significant movement of nomadic peoples began when early Scythians were expelled from Central Asia by either the Massagetae or the Issedones. This expulsion forced them westward across the Araxes river and into the Caspian and Ciscaucasian Steppes. Archaeological evidence from the 8th century BC Aržan-1 kurgan shows these people already possessed quality goldsmithing and sophisticated bronze-casting skills before their great migration. They originated in Central Asia and Siberia, specifically in steppes corresponding to present-day eastern Kazakhstan or the Altai-Sayan region. Their arrival in Europe occurred between the 8th and 7th centuries BC, following the same path as earlier Iranic nomads of the Chernogorovka-Novocherkassk complex. By the 7th century BC, they reached the Caspian Steppe, which had been occupied by the Cimmerians since the 10th century BC. The Scythians displaced the Cimmerians as the dominant power on the western Eurasian Steppe during this period. Remaining Cimmerians were assimilated by the Scythians due to similar ethnic backgrounds and lifestyles. The Scythians settled the Ciscaucasian Steppe where they established a capital between the Araxes river, the Caucasus Mountains, and the Maeotian Sea.
During the 7th century BC, the Scythians crossed the Caucasus Mountains and raided West Asia alongside the Cimmerians. They took advantage of social disruption caused by the growth of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. Local rulers like Mannaean king Ašheri welcomed them as useful allies against Assyria. In 652 BC, Scythian king Madyes helped suppress a Babylonian rebellion, imposing Scythian hegemony on Media for nearly thirty years. Their power in West Asia peaked under Madyes, extending from the Halys river in Anatolia to the Caspian Sea. However, in 625 BC, Median king Cyaxares invited Scythian leaders to a feast and assassinated them all. This act overthrew the Assyro-Scythian yoke and forced the Scythians to retreat north to the Ciscaucasian Steppe. Some splinter groups remained in eastern Transcaucasia but were completely assimilated into Median society by the mid-6th century BC. The raiding Scythians reached as far south as Palestine and the borders of the Saite Egyptian kingdom before being turned back by gifts from Pharaoh Psamtik I.
After their expulsion from West Asia, the Scythians established a kingdom in the Pontic Steppe between the Danube and Don rivers. They traded with Greek colonies founded by settlers from Miletus, Corinth, Phocaea, and Megara along the northern Black Sea coast. These colonies included Histria, Tyras, and Borysthenēs. The Scythian aristocracy bought luxury goods like wine and vessels to mix it, using them as grave goods. In exchange for slaves, Greeks sold fabrics, precious metal decorations, bronze items, and black burnished pottery to the Scythians. By the 4th century BC, sedentary Scythian farmers sold up to 16,000 tonnes of grain to Pantikapaion, which was then sold to Athens. This trade made Pontic Olbia economically prosperous while Scythian commoners received no benefits from these commercial activities. The Greek cities acted as slave trade hubs, depending on Scythian rulers to acquire slaves through military raids or subordinate tribes. One group of slaves purchased by Athens formed an urban police force known as public slaves. Scythian coins struck in Greek cities bore images of ears of grain, attesting to the importance of this agricultural tribute.
The Scythians introduced distinctive weapons and horse harnesses to the north Pontic region, including cast bronze cauldrons, daggers, swords, and cruciform tubes used to fix strap-crossings. These early designs were influenced by Chinese art created by Shang artisans. Their metallurgical workshops were located in the forest steppe where they introduced iron working to Bronze Age peoples. Scythian composite armour featured Greek-type shoulder guards added during the 5th century BC. Archaeological finds include gold combs from Solokha dating to the early 4th century BC and relief sculptures depicting mounted Lydian warriors. The iconic 'Animal Style' art tradition appears in kurgans like Aržan-1 circa 800 BC with curled-up feline animals. Gold belt titles found at Mingəçevir span the 7th to 4th centuries BC. Red-figure vase paintings show Scythian archers holding bows and spears. Marble statues with red paint and gold leaf depict warriors carrying axes and bows. These artifacts demonstrate how Scythian culture absorbed West Asian tastes while maintaining distinct nomadic martial traditions that influenced neighboring cultures across Europe.
Pressure from Massagetae campaigns caused a second wave of Sauromatians to enter Scythia between the late 6th and 5th centuries BC. They intermarried with local tribes and possibly established themselves as new ruling aristocracy. By the early 3rd century BC, Sarmatian tribes captured Scythian pastures, causing the kingdom to collapse suddenly. The Roxolani were responsible for most destruction, forcing the capital Kamianka to be abandoned. Grain exports declined drastically while Greek inscriptions stopped mentioning names of Scythian slaves. Sarmatian pressure continued into the 3rd century BC until they reached Chersonesus by 280 BC. Most native and Greek settlements on the north shore of the Black Sea were destroyed over the course of the 3rd to 1st centuries BC. Celts, Thracian Getae, and Germanic Bastarnae also seized Scythian lands from the west. By the early 2nd century BC, Bastarnae stopped southward Sarmatian advances along the Istros river. The remaining Scythians retreated to Little Scythia in Tauric Chersonese and Thrace where urban life was still possible. These later populations became fully sedentary farmers who slowly intermarried with native Tauri and infiltrating Sarmatians.
Hesiod's works first mentioned Scythians as 'mare-milking' people who drank milk and lived in wagons. Herodotus of Halicarnassus wrote legendary accounts portraying them as barbarians opposite to Egypt and Africa. By the 5th century BC, Athenian stereotypes associated Scythians with drunkenness and savagery while Persians represented refined civilization. Ephorus of Cyme described them as one of four great barbarian peoples alongside Celts, Persians, and Libyans. He created an idealized image of invincibility through the figure of Anacharsis, a sage granted Athenian citizenship. Greek mythology included mythical figures like Teutarus serving Amphitryon and Prometheus as a Scythian king. Romans confused Scythians and Celts into a single group called Celto-Scythians living from Gaul to Pontic steppe. Strabo of Amasia idealized their nomadic life founded on simplicity before Greeks corrupted them with luxury. Later traditions transformed Prince Anacharsis into a legendary noble savage representing Barbarian wisdom among Seven Sages of Greece. These literary constructions shaped how ancient authors viewed these distant eastern neighbors.
Large-scale robbery of Scythian tombs began when Russian Empire occupied Pontic steppe in the 18th century. Tsar Peter I issued decrees in 1718 collecting rare objects for Saint Petersburg State Hermitage Museum. By 1764 most Scythian tombs within Russian Empire had been sacked by experienced grave robbers who found burial chambers and stole treasures. In Ukraine, Kuban, and Crimea, more than 85% of excavated kurgans were pillaged by the 20th century. Pseudohistorical claims emerged linking modern nations to Scythian ancestry including Irish people descended from Scota fleeing Egypt. Hungarian scholars identified Hungarians with Huns claiming descent from Scythians during early modern period. Cultural movement called Skifstvo emerged in Russia where members referred to themselves as Scythians accepting Dostoevsky's view that Russians were Asiatic. Aleksandr Blok wrote poem The Scythians in 1918 depicting Russia as barrier between warring races of Europe and Asia. Scholar Adrienne Mayor hypothesized griffin legends originated among Scythians encountering Protoceratops fossils though palaeontologist Mark Witton argued imagery came from West Asia. David Anthony suggested martial role of women gave rise to Greek myths about Amazons but Askold Ivantchik stated Amazon imagery was known to Homer independently.
Common questions
When did the Scythians originate and migrate to Europe?
The Scythians originated in Central Asia and Siberia, specifically in steppes corresponding to present-day eastern Kazakhstan or the Altai-Sayan region. They migrated westward across the Araxes river into the Caspian and Ciscaucasian Steppes during the 9th century BC before arriving in Europe between the 8th and 7th centuries BC.
Who were the Scythians and what was their relationship with the Cimmerians?
The Scythians were nomadic Iranic people who displaced the Cimmerians as the dominant power on the western Eurasian Steppe by the 7th century BC. Remaining Cimmerians were assimilated by the Scythians due to similar ethnic backgrounds and lifestyles after being driven out of the Caspian Steppe.
How did the Scythians interact with Greek colonies along the Black Sea coast?
The Scythians traded with Greek colonies founded by settlers from Miletus, Corinth, Phocaea, and Megara along the northern Black Sea coast including Histria, Tyras, and Borysthenēs. By the 4th century BC, sedentary Scythian farmers sold up to 16,000 tonnes of grain to Pantikapaion which was then sold to Athens while Greeks supplied fabrics and bronze items.
What caused the collapse of the Scythian kingdom in the Pontic Steppe?
Pressure from Massagetae campaigns caused a second wave of Sauromatians to enter Scythia between the late 6th and 5th centuries BC before Sarmatian tribes captured Scythian pastures by the early 3rd century BC. The Roxolani were responsible for most destruction forcing the capital Kamianka to be abandoned and causing the kingdom to collapse suddenly.
When did large-scale robbery of Scythian tombs begin under Russian rule?
Large-scale robbery of Scythian tombs began when the Russian Empire occupied the Pontic steppe in the 18th century. Tsar Peter I issued decrees in 1718 collecting rare objects for Saint Petersburg State Hermitage Museum and by 1764 most Scythian tombs within the Russian Empire had been sacked by experienced grave robbers.