Vladimir-Suzdal

• 1. Origins And Early Settlements

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  In the year 988, Yaroslav Vladimirovich became the first known prince of Rostov. He was appointed by his father Vladimir I of Kiev to govern this northern territory. A famine struck the area in 1024, sparking a revolt led by pagan sorcerers that Yaroslav personally suppressed. By 1054, Vsevolod Yaroslavich inherited the lands of Rostov and Suzdal after his brother's death. The region remained obscure until the 1090s when Bishoprics began appearing in records. Vladimir Monomakh ordered a church built in Rostov during this period. The Council of Liubech in 1097 confirmed Monomakh's possession of both Rostov and Suzdal as an appanage for his sons. Yuri Dolgorukiy, Monomakh's sixth son, resided in Suzdal by 1108. That same year he founded the fortified outpost of Vladimir on the Klyazma River. This new town sat thirty-one kilometers south of Suzdal. It served to control river trade and defend against raids from Volga Bulgaria who had attacked in 1107. During the eleventh and twelfth centuries, southern Rus' suffered systematic raids by Turkic nomads. Inhabitants migrated northward into the wooded areas known as Zalesye. New settlements like Pereslavl, Kostroma, Dmitrov, Moscow, Yuriev-Polsky, Uglich, Tver, Dubna emerged across this landscape. These foundations were assigned either by chronicle or popular legend to Yuri whose sobriquet meant "the Long-Armed". His dexterity allowed him to manipulate politics far away in Kiev.

• 2. Rise Of The Northeastern Power

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  Yuri Dolgoruky moved his capital from Rostov to Suzdal in 1125 following his father's death. He ruled a principality that had become virtually independent. His son Andrey Bogolyubsky significantly increased Vladimir's power at the expense of nearby princely states. He treated neighboring rulers with contempt and drove them out by 1162. Andrey seized all their lands thus uniting his father's patrimony under sole rule. When grand prince Rostislav I of Kiev died in 1167, a succession crisis broke out. Andrey argued that tradition dictated the Principality of Pereyaslavl should be the domain of the crown prince of Kiev. After sacking Kiev in 1169 he enthroned his younger brother Gleb. Meanwhile Andrey embellished Vladimir with white stone churches and monasteries. Gleb's death in 1171 led to yet another succession crisis. The Suzdalians were kicked out of Kiev. Andrey formed another coalition to retake the capital but was utterly defeated in the Siege of Vyshgorod in 1173. Some months later prince Andrey was murdered by his own boyars in his suburban residence at Bogolyubovo. During the 1174, 1177 war of succession Andrey's brother Vsevolod III secured the throne of Vladimir. The Yurievichi clan dropped out of competition for the Kievan throne never seeking it again. Instead Vsevolod focused on subjugating the southern Ryazan Principality which appeared to stir discord within the princely family. He also targeted the mighty Turkic state of Volga Bulgaria bordering Vladimir-Suzdal to the east. After several military campaigns Ryazan was burnt to the ground in 1208. The Bulgars were forced to pay tribute.

• 3. Dynastic Conflicts And Fragmentation

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  Vsevolod's death in 1212 precipitated another serious dynastic conflict. His eldest son Konstantin gained support from powerful Rostovan boyars and Mstislav the Bold of Kiev. They expelled the lawful heir George from Vladimir to Rostov. George managed to return to the capital six years later upon Konstantin's death. George proved to be a shrewd ruler who decisively defeated Volga Bulgaria. He installed his brother Yaroslav in Novgorod. His reign ended when Mongol hordes under Batu Khan took and burnt Vladimir in 1238. Thereupon they proceeded to devastate other major cities of Vladimir-Suzdal during the Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'. Yury II was killed during these invasions between 1237 and 1238. His younger brother Yaroslav II and other princes submitted to Mongol rule. By the end of the thirteenth century the grand principality had fragmented into over a dozen appanages. Moscow and Tver emerged as two leading principalities struggling for possession of the grand princely throne. From 1331 the prince of Moscow was also the grand prince of Vladimir except for one brief interruption from 1359 to 1363. During that time the throne was held by Nizhny Novgorod during the minority of Dmitry Donskoy. In 1389 the grand principality became a family possession of the prince of Moscow. The two thrones were united marking the beginning of centralized Russian statehood.

• 4. Mongol Invasion And Subjugation

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  While heavy tribute payments and initial Mongol invasions caused much destruction to Vladimir-Suzdal, rule under the Mongols brought wealth to the region. Vladimir gained access to the Mongol's lucrative patronage of oriental trade. None of the cities managed to regain the power of Kievan Rus' after the invasion. Vladimir became a vassal of the Mongol Empire later succeeded by the Golden Horde. The Grand Prince was appointed by the Great Khan. Even Alexander Nevsky of Pereslavl had to travel to Karakorum to be installed as Grand Prince in Vladimir. As many factions strove for power the principality rapidly disintegrated into eleven tiny states. These included Moscow Tver Pereslavl Rostov Yaroslavl Uglich Belozersk Kostroma Nizhny Novgorod Starodub-upon-Klyazma and Yuriev-Polsky. All nominally acknowledged suzerainty of the Grand Prince of Vladimir but his effective authority weakened progressively. By the end of the century only three cities still contended for the title: Moscow Tver and Nizhny Novgorod. Once installed they chose to remain in their own cities rather than move to Vladimir. The Principality of Moscow gradually came to eclipse its rivals. The decision of metropolitan Peter of Kiev and all Rus' to move his chair from Vladimir to Moscow in 1325 signaled rising prominence. When the Tver Uprising of 1327 broke out forces of Moscow and Nizhny Novgorod helped crush it. By the end of the 1330s Moscow had eclipsed Tver which then descended into inter-princely wars between appanages like Kashin and Mikulin.

• 5. The Moscow Ascendancy

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  Once installed, however, rulers chose to remain in their own cities rather than move to Vladimir. The Principality of Moscow gradually came to eclipse its rivals. The decision of metropolitan Peter of Kiev and all Rus' to move his chair from Vladimir to Moscow in 1325 was another sign of Moscow's rising prominence. When the Tver Uprising of 1327 broke out, forces of Moscow and Nizhny Novgorod helped the Mongols crush it. By the end of the 1330s, Moscow had eclipsed Tver, which then descended into inter-princely wars between various appanages of Tver, particularly between Kashin and Mikulin. During the Great Troubles, Tver and Nizhny Novgorod-Suzdal both attempted to regain the title of grand prince of Vladimir. Tver succeeded a few times, but since 1394, Moscow effectively inherited the title and controlled Vladimir thereafter. This marked the end of a separate Vladimirian principality. Since that time, traditions of the old Principality of Rostov and Grand Principality of Vladimir were symbolically represented in expanded titles of Grand Princes of Moscow. Later Russian Tsars and Emperors up to 1917 were styled as rulers of historical polities including Vladimir and Rostov. In Latin versions these old polities were referred to as Vladimiria and Rostovia. Ivan III managed to unite Russian lands around Moscow only by the end of the fifteenth century. He put an end to Russia's subordination to the Golden Horde after the Great standing on the Ugra river of 1480. The river was later poetically dubbed the "Virgin Belt". This event marked the birth of the sovereign Russian state headed by the Grand Prince of Moscow.

• 6. Suzdalian Architectural Renaissance

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  As part of the Christian world Rus' principalities gained opportunities for developing political and cultural ties with Byzantium and European countries. By the end of the eleventh century Rus' gradually fell under influence of Roman architecture. Whitestone cathedrals decorated with sculpture appeared in Vladimir-Suzdal due to Andrey Bogolyubsky's invitation of architects from all over the world. These cathedrals are not identical to edifices of Roman Catholic Europe but represent a synthesis of Byzantine cruciform plan and cupolas with Roman whitestone construction. This mixture of Greek and Western European traditions was possible only in Kievan Rus'. One result was the famous Church of Pokrova na Nerli, a symbol of cultural originality of Suzdalia. The veneration of the Theotokos as holy protectress of Vladimir was introduced by Prince Andrew. He dedicated many churches to Her and installed in his palace a revered image known as Theotokos of Vladimir. In the early fourteenth century leadership transferred from Vladimir to Moscow which would fight for leadership against Tver for another century. Moscow functioned as one of border fortresses of north-eastern Rus'. In 1324 Metropolitan Peter left Vladimir and settled down in Moscow transferring residence of Russian Orthodox Church. In late fourteenth century principal object of worship of old capital, the icon of Theotokos of Vladimir, was transferred to Moscow. Vladimir became model for Muscovy. Emphasizing succession princes of Moscow took good care of Vladimir's sacred places. In early fifteenth century Andrei Rublev and Prokhor of Gorodets painted Assumption Cathedral. Mid-1450s they restored Cathedral of St. George in Yuriev-Polsky under supervision of Vasili Dmitriyevich Yermolin.

• 7. Cultural Legacy And State Formation

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  Rus' recovered from consequences of Mongol invasion only by late thirteenth century. First areas to recover were Novgorod and Pskov spared from Tatar raids. These city-states with parliamentarian rule created original culture influenced by western Baltic neighbors. In early fourteenth century leadership transferred from Principality of Vladimir to Moscow fighting for leadership against Tver for another century. Moscow was part of Vladimir lands functioning as border fortress of north-eastern Rus'. In 1324 Metropolitan Peter left Vladimir settling in Moscow thus transferring residence of Russian Orthodox Church. In late fourteenth century principal object of worship, the icon of Theotokos of Vladimir, transferred to Moscow. Vladimir became model for Muscovy. Emphasizing succession princes of Moscow took good care of Vladimir's sacred places. In early fifteenth century Andrei Rublev and Prokhor of Gorodets painted Assumption Cathedral. Mid-1450s they restored Cathedral of St. George in Yuriev-Polsky under supervision of Vasili Dmitriyevich Yermolin. Architecture of Muscovy inherited technique of whitestone construction and typology of four-pillar cathedrals from Vladimir. Art historians notice that early Muscovite architecture was influenced by Balkans and European Gothic architecture. Russian painting of late fourteenth and early fifteenth centuries characterized by influences of Byzantine artist Feofan Grek and Russian icon-painter Andrei Rublev. Feofan's style distinguished by monochromatic palette and uncommon expressiveness of laconic blots and lines sending message of complex symbolic implication close to then widely-spread doctrine of hesychasm from Byzantium. Soft-colored icons of Rublev closer to late Byzantine painting style of Balkan countries in fifteenth century.