Syria–Lebanon campaign
On the 1st of April 1941, Iraq fell under the control of nationalists led by Rashid Ali al-Gaylani. This regime appealed for support from Italy and Germany. The resulting Anglo-Iraqi War lasted from 2 to the 31st of May 1941. It ended with the overthrow of the Ali regime and the installation of a pro-British government. During this conflict, Admiral François Darlan allowed German aircraft to use Vichy airfields in Syria. These airfields were used for attacks against British forces in Iraq. Sutherland & Canwell (2011), p. 34. On the 28th of May 1941, Admiral François Darlan signed the Paris Protocols with Germany. This agreement granted Germany access to military facilities in Vichy-controlled Syria. Keegan p. 676. Charles Huntziger, the Vichy Minister of War, sent orders to Henri Dentz, the High Commissioner for the Levant. He ordered that aircraft of the German Luftwaffe and Italian Regia Aeronautica could refuel in Syria. Marked as Iraqi aircraft, Axis aircraft landed in Syria en route to the Kingdom of Iraq during the Anglo-Iraqi War. Darlan, a confirmed Anglophobe, allowed these flights partly because of attacks on Vichy French ships by the British. He calculated that since July 1940, 167 French ships had been seized by British forces. Sutherland & Canwell (2011), p. 35. Under the Paris Protocols, an agreement was made for the French to launch an offensive against British-held Iraqi oilfields. The Germans also requested permission to use Syrian railways to send armaments to Iraqi nationalists in Mosul. In return for Darlan's pro-Axis gestures, the Germans released 7,000 French prisoners of war. Many were professional officers and non-commissioned officers. Despite government prodding, General Archibald Percival Wavell, Commander-in-Chief of Middle East Command, was reluctant to intervene in Syria. His hesitation stemmed from the situation in the Western Desert, the imminent German attack on Crete, and doubts about Free French intentions.
General Sir Henry Maitland Wilson devised a four-pronged invasion strategy for Operation Exporter. The plan called for lines of invasion into Damascus and Beirut, Palestine, northern Syria, and Palmyra. It also included an advance from Iraq toward Tripoli in northern Lebanon. Playfair (2004), pp. 203, 206. The 5th Indian Brigade Group, led by Brigadier Wilfrid Lewis Lloyd, crossed the Syrian border from Palestine. They aimed to take Quneitra and Deraa. This move anticipated opening the way for the 1st Free French Division to advance to Damascus. Four days after the operation began, the force came under unified command. It was named Gentforce after its French commander, Major-General Paul Louis Le Gentilhomme. Playfair (2004), pp. 210, 212. The 7th Australian Division advanced from Palestine along the coastal road from Haifa towards Beirut. Johnston (2005), pp. 48, 55. Major-General John Lavarack commanded this division until the 18th of June when he took over Australian I Corps. He was succeeded by Major-General Arthur Tubby Allen. The Australian 21st Brigade targeted Beirut, advancing along the coast from Tyre over the Litani River towards Sidon. The Australian 25th Brigade attacked the large Vichy French airbase at Rayak. They advanced along a route further inland from the 21st Brigade. Playfair (2004), pp. 208, 211, 219. A supporting commando landing from Cyprus occurred at the south of the Litani River. Long (1953), pp. 360, 361. Once the two southern prongs were engaged, a third force invaded Syria from Iraq Command. The bulk of the 10th Indian Infantry Division, led by Major-General William Bill Slim, advanced north-west up the Euphrates River from Haditha in Iraq. They moved toward Deir ez Zor and then to Raqqa and Aleppo. This maneuver threatened communication and supply lines of Vichy forces defending Beirut. It particularly targeted the railway line running northwards through Aleppo to Turkey. Some British strategists believed Turkey was sympathetic to Vichy and Germany. Mackenzie (1951), p. 121. Two infantry battalions from the 20th Indian Infantry Brigade made a feint from Mosul. The 17th Indian Infantry Brigade advanced into the Bec du Canard region. This area contained a railway from Aleppo running eastward to Mosul and Baghdad. Habforce consisted of the 4th Cavalry Brigade, the 1st Battalion Essex Regiment, and the Arab Legion Mechanized Regiment. These units gathered in western Iraq between Rutbah and the Transjordan border. Playfair (2004), p. 213.
Hostilities commenced on the 8th of June 1941. The Battle of the Litani River took place on the 9th of June as part of the advance on Beirut from Palestine. The Battle of Jezzine occurred on the 13th of June during the same advance. Sidon fell after fighting from 13 to the 15th of June. Kissoué saw combat from 15 to the 17th of June as forces moved toward Damascus. The Battle of Damascus lasted from 18 to the 21st of June. Merdjayoun was contested from 19 to the 24th of June by troops advancing on both Beirut and Damascus. Palmyra was attacked on the 1st of July by forces coming from Iraq and Tripoli. Deir ez-Zor fell on the 3rd of July as part of the central and northern Syria offensive. Damour was fought over five days from 5 to the 9th of July. The final battle for Beirut occurred on the 12th of July. On the 10th of July, the Australian 21st Brigade stood on the verge of entering Beirut. Dentz sought an armistice at that moment. At one minute past midnight on the 12th of July, a ceasefire came into effect and ended the campaign. Playfair (2004), pp. 221, 335, 337. Many British and Commonwealth troops were novices facing hot dry mountainous terrain. Indian Army units excelled in these conditions. The Australian contingent faced the worst country but conducted the most effective attack. They executed a good plan with great determination. Long (1953), p. 526.
The initial advantage enjoyed by the Vichy French Air Force did not last long. The flat terrain and absence of infrastructure made their aircraft vulnerable to air attacks. Absence of modern anti-aircraft artillery further exposed them to destruction on the ground. Mollo (1981), p. 146. On the 26th of June, Tomahawks from 3 Squadron RAAF strafed Homs airfield. Five Dewoitine D.520s of Fighter Squadron II/3 were destroyed. Six more were damaged. Shores & Ehrengardt (1987), p. 94. On the 10th of July, five D.520s attacked Bristol Blenheim bombers of 45 Squadron RAF. Seven Tomahawks from 3 Squadron RAAF escorted the bombers. Brown (1983), p. 17. French pilots claimed three Blenheims but at least four D.520s were destroyed by Australians. The following day, a Dewoitine pilot shot down a Tomahawk from 3 Squadron. This was the only one lost during the entire campaign. By the end of the campaign, Vichy forces had lost 179 aircraft from about 289 committed to the Levant. Remaining aircraft with sufficient range evacuated to Rhodes. Shores & Ehrengardt (August 1970), pp. 283, 284. Vichy French airmen concentrated attacks on ships and ground targets until forced to move north. The scare caused by German success in Crete had been exaggerated because their parachute and glider invasions were very costly.
On the 10th of July, as the Australian 21st Brigade neared Beirut, Dentz sought an armistice. At one minute past midnight on the 12th of July, a ceasefire came into effect and ended the campaign. Playfair (2004), pp. 221, 335, 337. The Armistice of Saint Jean d'Acre, also known as the Convention of Acre, was signed on the 14th of July at Sidney Smith Barracks. This location sat on the outskirts of the city of Acre. Time magazine referred to the Syria-Lebanon campaign as a mixed show shortly after its conclusion. The campaign remains relatively unknown even in participating countries today. After the war, Dentz stated that 10,000 had been killed which would mean 10,000 missing and 10,000 taken prisoner against a British claim of 10,000 of all natures. The Vichy Air Force lost most destroyed on ground while navy lost one submarine and some defected to Free French. Playfair (2004), pp. 214, 221. The armistice agreement led to repatriation of 10,000 military and civilian personnel in eight convoys from the 7th of August to the 27th of September. Auchinleck (1946), p. 4216. These convoys consisted of three hospital ships and a gleaner ship. Prisoners taken by Vichy French forces were returned but several British prisoners of war had been sent out of Syria. Some were released only after the armistice. Delay in obtaining return of these prisoners led to detention of Dentz and officers in Palestine until British prisoners were returned. Auchinleck (1946), p. 4217.
Operations against the Vichy regime in Syria could only be conducted with troops withdrawn from Western Desert. This dispersal contributed to defeat of Operation Battleaxe and made Syrian campaign take longer than necessary. Churchill decided to sack Wavell in early May over his reluctance to divert forces to Iraq. Wavell was relieved on the 22nd of June and relinquished command on the 5th of July leaving for India two days afterwards. In late July 1941, De Gaulle flew from Brazzaville to congratulate victors. Free French General Georges Catroux took control of Syria and Lebanon. On the 26th of November, shortly after assuming post, Catroux recognized independence of Syria and Lebanon in name of Free French movement. Playfair (2004), p. 221. After elections on the 8th of November 1943, Lebanon became independent state on the 22nd of November 1943. It declared war on Germany and Empire of Japan on the 27th of February 1945. Martin (2011), p. 11. By 1945 continued French presence in Levant saw nationalist demonstrations which French attempted to quell. With heavy Syrian casualties notably in Damascus, Churchill opposed French action but after being rebuffed by Charles De Gaulle he ordered British forces into Syria from Jordan with orders to fire on French. Known as Levant Crisis, British armored cars and troops reached Damascus following which French were escorted and confined to barracks. With political pressure added, De Gaulle ordered ceasefire and France withdrew from Syria following year.
Up Next
Continue Browsing
Common questions
When did the Syria-Lebanon campaign begin and end?
The Syria-Lebanon campaign began on the 8th of June 1941 and ended with a ceasefire at one minute past midnight on the 12th of July 1941. Hostilities commenced on the 8th of June 1941 and the final battle for Beirut occurred on the 12th of July.
Who commanded the British forces during the Syria-Lebanon campaign?
General Sir Henry Maitland Wilson devised the invasion strategy for Operation Exporter while General Archibald Percival Wavell served as Commander-in-Chief of Middle East Command until his relief on the 22nd of June. Major-General William Bill Slim led the 10th Indian Infantry Division advancing from Iraq and Major-General Arthur Tubby Allen succeeded Major-General John Lavarack to command the Australian 7th Division.
What were the main objectives of the Syria-Lebanon campaign in 1941?
The primary objective was to prevent Vichy French airfields in Syria from being used by German aircraft to attack British forces in Iraq. The campaign also aimed to secure Syrian railways and oilfields against Axis use and to install a pro-British government following the overthrow of Rashid Ali al-Gaylani's regime.
How many aircraft did the Vichy Air Force lose during the Syria-Lebanon campaign?
Vichy forces lost 179 aircraft out of about 289 committed to the Levant during the campaign. Most destroyed aircraft were lost on the ground due to flat terrain and absence of modern anti-aircraft artillery, with remaining aircraft of sufficient range evacuating to Rhodes.
When did Lebanon become an independent state after the Syria-Lebanon campaign?
Lebanon became an independent state on the 22nd of November 1943 following elections held on the 8th of November 1943. It declared war on Germany and Empire of Japan on the 27th of February 1945.