Saint-Domingue expedition
In early 1801, Napoleon Bonaparte decided to appoint his sister Pauline's husband, general Charles Leclerc, as head of a military expedition. The goal was to reassert French authority over Saint-Domingue and curtail the measures of independence taken by Toussaint Louverture. Initially, Napoleon planned to confirm the military ranks and lands acquired by Toussaint's officers. He offered Toussaint the role of lieutenant of France while guaranteeing freedom to former slaves. To prove goodwill, Napoleon sent Toussaint's two sons back to their father with their tutor in October 1801. However, Napoleon's opinion shifted when he interpreted Toussaint's July constitution as an unacceptable offense to French imperial authority. Henceforth, Napoleon secretly directed Leclerc to disarm Toussaint's black-controlled government. He also ordered the deportation of all military officers to France. Napoleon foresaw that Toussaint would probably put up resistance. He took all necessary measures to defeat him should that occur. Toussaint had over 16,000 men available across the island.
On the 14th of December 1801, a French fleet of 21 frigates and 35 ships of the line left Brest under Admiral Villaret de Joyeuse. This fleet carried between 7,000 and 8,000 troops. A squadron under contre-amiral Ganteaume followed from Toulon on the 14th of February with 4,200 troops. Another squadron led by contre-amiral Linois departed Cádiz on the 17th of February with 2,400 troops. In total, 31,131 troops were landed on Saint-Domingue. The force included over 4,000 troops of the French Imperial Naval Corps. It also contained a Dutch division and the 3rd Polish Half-Brigade. A Spanish fleet of seven ships under Admiral Federico Gravina joined the effort. Great financial and material aid came from Spanish Cuba. The ships were due to join up in the Bay of Samaná. Villaret de Joyeuse reached this location on the 29th of January. Latouche-Tréville arrived closely behind him. These two admirals divided their combined fleets to arrive at different ports. They aimed to surprise Toussaint before he could react.
Villaret arrived before Cap-Haïtien on the 3rd of February and an attack began on the 5th of February. Henri Christophe set light to the town and slitted throats of part of the white population. Donatien de Rochambeau landed in the bay of Mancenille on the 6th of February and captured Fort-Dauphin. Leclerc set up his main headquarters at Cap-Haïtien. He sent ships towards North America to resupply. Latouche-Tréville and Boudet took Port-au-Prince and Léogâne. They obtained Laplume's surrender. General Kerverseau landed at Santo Domingo with 2,000 men. He took possession of a large part of the Spanish area of the island. In the first ten days, the French occupied the island's ports and towns. Toussaint took refuge in the Arbonite massif. He was left with only a few brigades under generals Jacques Maurepas, Christophe, and Dessalines. The French held Toussaint's sons as hostages. A letter from Napoleon promised their father the role of Leclerc's deputy if he surrendered. On the 17th of February, Leclerc launched a simultaneous assault with his divisions. Rochambeau moved from Fort-Dauphin towards Saint-Michel while Hardy marched on Marmelade. Desfourneaux advanced on Plaisance. The plan worked well despite difficult terrain. By late April, order was re-established little by little on the island.
Toussaint contemplated revenge from house arrest at Ennery. Yellow fever ravaged the French forces, killing around 15,000 men in just two months. News of the reestablishment of slavery on Guadeloupe reached Saint-Domingue. This sparked another threat of revolt. Leclerc judged it wisest to disarm the blacks. This decision made them more angry. By August 1802, Leclerc's forces began to suffer mass defections. Black and mulatto troops deserted in large numbers. In October, former rebel leaders Alexander Petion, Henri Christophe, and Jean-Jacques Dessalines all deserted the French forces. The French forces now numbered only 8,000 to 10,000 men. They were overwhelmed by the rebellion. After Christophe massacred several hundred Polish soldiers at Port-de-Paix, Leclerc ordered the arrest of all remaining black colonial troops. He executed 1,000 of them by tying sacks of flour to their necks. He pushed these prisoners off the side of ships. Rochambeau succeeded Boudet as commander after Richepanse died of yellow fever on the 3rd of September. Leclerc himself died of yellow fever on the 1st of November 1802.
As the senior officer on the expedition, Rochambeau took over from Leclerc as supreme commander. He tried in vain to suppress the new revolt. Rochambeau ordered 600 pit bulls from Cuba. He forbade anyone to feed them. These dogs lived by eating only negro meat. A submissive slave working in the fields would suddenly be devoured by dozens of hungry pit bulls. This tactic led to larger revolts against the French. Cap-Haïtien seemed to be the last bastion of anti-rebel forces. When rebels reached it, Christophe had already relieved one of the forts. Rochambeau recaptured it but some 1,200 blacks held prisoner threw its crew overboard. On the 18th of November 1803, near the Cap, the French were defeated at the Battle of Vertières. Jean-Jacques Dessalines commanded the rebel general forces. The wind of revolt blew especially through the north and spread in the south. Rochambeau was captured at the Blockade of Saint-Domingue by the British. He was then interned in Britain for nearly nine years as a prisoner of war.
The expedition resulted with France losing more troops than during the later Battle of Waterloo. Little more than 7,000 to 8,000 of the 31,000 soldiers sent survived. Over 20 French generals died. At the end of December, the last French soldiers left the island. On the 1st of January 1804, Dessalines proclaimed the colony of Saint-Domingue to be the second independent state in the Americas. He named it Haiti. He became governor general for life before being crowned emperor as Jacques I on the 6th of October 1804. He massacred the last French settlers including women and children left on the island. This event is known as the 1804 Haiti Massacre. He followed a system called caporalisme agraire or serfdom. This did not include slavery per se but aimed to maintain sugar industry profits by force. In 1826 Charles X of France began the Haiti indemnity controversy. He demanded 150 million gold francs from the young republic. This debt was reduced to 90 million in 1838. It was finally paid off by the mid-20th century.
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Common questions
Who led the Saint-Domingue expedition in 1801?
Napoleon Bonaparte appointed his sister Pauline's husband, general Charles Leclerc, as head of the military expedition. The force included over 4,000 troops of the French Imperial Naval Corps and a Dutch division.
When did the French fleet leave Brest for Saint-Domingue?
A French fleet of 21 frigates and 35 ships of the line left Brest under Admiral Villaret de Joyeuse on the 14th of December 1801. A squadron followed from Toulon on the 14th of February with 4,200 troops.
How many men died during the Saint-Domingue expedition due to yellow fever?
Yellow fever ravaged the French forces, killing around 15,000 men in just two months. Little more than 7,000 to 8,000 of the 31,000 soldiers sent survived the entire campaign.
What happened to Toussaint Louverture after he surrendered to the French?
Toussaint was placed under house arrest at Ennery while Napoleon promised him the role of Leclerc's deputy if he surrendered. He remained there until his death or further political developments occurred.
Who commanded the rebel forces that defeated the French at the Battle of Vertières?
Jean-Jacques Dessalines commanded the rebel general forces when the French were defeated at the Battle of Vertières on the 18th of November 1803. This battle marked a decisive turning point in the conflict.