Jean-Jacques Dessalines

• 1. Enslavement And Early Life

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  Jean-Jacques Duclos was born into slavery on the 20th of September 1758 at Cormier, a plantation near Grande-Riviere-du-Nord in Saint-Domingue. His enslaved father had adopted the surname from his owner Henri Duclos. The names of Jean-Jacques's parents and their region of origin in Africa remain unknown to historians. Most slaves trafficked to Saint-Domingue came from west and central West Africa during that era. He worked as a laborer in sugarcane fields until he reached about thirty years of age. A free man of color named Dessalines purchased him and assigned his own surname to the young man. From then on, he was known as Jean-Jacques Dessalines. He kept this name after gaining his freedom. He worked for that master for approximately three years before joining the uprising of 1791. This rebellion spread across the Plaine-du-Nord, an area filled with large sugar cane plantations where most enslaved Africans lived and worked. Mortality rates were so high that French colonial planters continued buying more enslaved people from Africa throughout the eighteenth century. Dessalines received his early military training from a woman whose name was either Victoria Montou or Akbaraya Tòya.

• 2. Military Rise And Alliances

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  In 1791, along with thousands of other enslaved persons, Jean-Jacques Dessalines joined the slave rebellion of the northern plains led by Jean François Papillon and Georges Biassou. This rebellion marked the first action of what would become the Haitian Revolution. Dessalines became a lieutenant in Papillon's army and followed him to Santo Domingo, occupying the eastern half of the island. There he enlisted to serve Spain's military forces against the French colony of Saint-Domingue. During that period, he met the rising military commander Toussaint Bréda, later known as Toussaint Louverture. Both men wanted above all to defeat slavery. In 1794, after the French declared an end to slavery following the French Revolution, Toussaint Louverture switched allegiances to the French Republic. He fought for France against both Spanish and British forces trying to control the lucrative colony. Dessalines followed suit, becoming a chief lieutenant to Toussaint Louverture and rising to the rank of brigadier general by 1799. He commanded many successful engagements including captures of Jacmel, Petit-Goâve, Miragoâne, and Anse-à-Veau. In 1801, Dessalines quickly ended an insurrection in the north led by Louverture's nephew General Moyse. He gained a reputation for his take no prisoners policy and for burning homes and entire villages to the ground.

• 3. The Battle Of Crete-A-Pierrot

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  During the 11th of March 1802 battle, Dessalines and his 1,300 men defended a small fort against 18,000 attackers. To inspire his troops at the start of the battle, he waved a lit torch near an open powder keg. He declared that he would blow the fort up should the French break through. The defenders inflicted extensive casualties on the attacking army but after a twenty-day siege they were forced to abandon the fort due to shortage of food and munitions. The rebels forced their way through enemy lines into the Cahos Mountains with their army still largely intact. The French soldiers under Leclerc were accompanied by mulatto troops led by Alexandre Pétion and André Rigaud. These free gens de couleur from Saint-Domingue had opposed Louverture's leadership. They tried to establish separate government in the south where gens de couleur owned majority of colony coffee plantations. Louverture and Dessalines drove them from island three years earlier. After the Battle of Crête-à-Pierrot, Dessalines defected from long-time ally Louverture and briefly sided with Leclerc, Pétion, and Rigaud.

• 4. Betrayal And Louverture's Fall

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  On the 22nd of May 1802, after Dessalines learned that Louverture failed to instruct local rebel leader lay down arms per recent ceasefire agreement, he immediately wrote Leclerc denouncing Louverture conduct as extraordinary. For this action, Dessalines and his spouse received gifts from Jean Baptiste Brunet. Louverture and hundred members of inner circle arrested by Brunett on the 7th of June 1802 and deported to France. Louverture imprisoned at Fort-de-Joux in Doubs where he died on the 7th of April 1803 at age fifty-nine. When it became apparent French intended re-establish slavery on Saint-Domingue as they had done Guadeloupe, Dessalines and Pétion switched sides again October 1802 oppose French. By November 1802, Dessalines became leader alliance with blessing of Pétion most prominent affranchis free men color. Leclerc died yellow fever which also killed many French troops under command. Brutal tactics Leclerc successor Donatien de Rochambeau helped unify rebel forces against French. The rebels achieved series victories culminating last major battle revolution Battle Vertières. On the 18th of November 1803 black mulatto forces Dessalines Pétion attacked fort Vertières held Rochambeau near Cap-Français north. Rochambeau troops surrendered next day. Four December 1803 French colonial army Napoleon Bonaparte surrendered last remaining territory Dessalines forces officially ended only slave rebellion world history successfully established independent nation.

• 5. Independence And The Massacre

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  On the 1st of January 1804 from city Gonaïves Dessalines officially declared former colony independence renamed Ayiti after indigenous Taíno name. He served Governor-General Saint-Domingue since the 30th of November 1803. After declaration independence Dessalines named himself Governor-General-for-life Haiti served role until the 22nd of September 1804 proclaimed Emperor Haiti generals Haitian Revolutionary army. Crowned Emperor Jacques I coronation ceremony the 6th of October city Le Cap now Cap-Haïtien. Between February April 1804 Dessalines ordered massacre remaining colonists Haiti event came called 1804 Haiti massacre. In Haitian Constitution 1805 Dessalines declared Haiti all-black nation forbade white colonists owning property land there. Property belonging white colonists declared incontestable right confiscated benefit state. Many white colonial planters merchants free people color already fled island refugees Cuba United States France. Dessalines excluded surviving Polish Legionnaires defected French Germans did not take part slave trade granted them full citizenship classified black. Tensions remained minority mixed-race population gained some education property during colonial period.

• 6. Autocratic Rule And Economic Policy

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  As Emperor Dessalines enforced plantation labor promote economy began dictatorship disappointed many newly freed eighty percent population felt rule evoked slavery faced before revolution. Those freed before revolution often mulattoes angered plans reallocate land high-ranking military officials began object rule. In 1805 after crowning himself Emperor Jean-Jacques Dessalines invaded eastern part island reaching Santo Domingo retreating face French naval squadron. His forces strict enforcing policy extent blacks felt enslaved again. Dessalines believed tight regulation foreign trade encouraging merchants Britain United States rather France. He needed literate educated officials managers administration positions went light-skinned elite gens de couleur libres formally educated white planion owner families. The historian Michel-Rolph Trouillot described harsh regimen caporalisme agraire agrarian militarism. Like Louverture before him Dessalines demanded all blacks work either soldiers defend nation laborers plantations continue production raise cash crops foundation colonial economy.

• 7. Assassination And Aftermath

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  Disaffected members Dessalines administration including Alexandre Pétion Henri Christophe began conspiracy overthrow Emperor Haitians began insurrection south August 1806 culminated Dessalines assassinated north capital city Port-au-Prince Larnage now known Pont-Rouge the 17th of October 1806 way fight rebels. Exact circumstances death uncertain some historians claim killed Pétion house Rue l'Enterrement meeting negotiate power future young nation. One report say Dessalines shot stabbed stripped fingers cut off corpse brought Port-au-Prince stoned crowds said resemble scraps shapeless remains. Some reports say arrested dealt deadly blow head. Another report says ambushed killed first fire. Yet another account recalls brutal attack Dessalines own men says after shot head split open sabre blow finally stabbed three times dagger crowd shouting tyrant killed. Most reports confirm mob dismembered Dessalines body public square after killed. Multiple modern sources state resistance providing proper burial assassination but named Dédée Bazile gathered mutilated corpse Emperor buried Cimetière intérieur Church Ste-Anne. Tomb raised Balthazar Inginac wife inscription Ci-git Dessalines mort à 48 ans Here lies Dessalines died forty-eight years old. Body later moved Autel de la Patrie Altar Nation Champs-de-Mars alongside Pétion body monument northern entrance Haitian capital marks place Emperor killed.