Romantic literature
In 1762, the Scottish poet James Macpherson published a collection of poems he claimed were ancient translations from Gaelic. These works, known as the Ossian cycle, sparked an international sensation that would help ignite the Romantic movement across Europe. The poems described natural beauty and ancient legends with such emotional intensity that they influenced writers like Johann Wolfgang von Goethe in Germany. This phenomenon marked a shift away from the rationalist philosophies of the Enlightenment era. Earlier figures also laid groundwork for this change. Isabella di Morra wrote lyrics in the sixteenth century about isolation and loneliness that reflected her tragic life. Her work stood apart from the Petrarchist fashion of love poetry dominant at the time. Joseph Warton served as headmaster at Winchester College while his brother Thomas held the Professorship of Poetry at Oxford University. They argued that invention and imagination were the chief qualities of a true poet. Horace Walpole published The Castle of Otranto in 1764 to introduce readers to Gothic novels filled with horror and exotic settings. Laurence Sterne released Tristram Shandy between 1759 and 1767 to offer a whimsical version of anti-rational sentimental fiction.
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe published The Sorrows of Young Werther in 1774 to depict a sensitive young artist whose passionate temperament inspired men throughout Europe. At that time, Germany consisted of many small separate states rather than a unified nation. Goethe's works helped develop a unifying sense of nationalism among these fragmented regions. Philosophers Johann Gottlieb Fichte and Friedrich Schelling lived in Jena where they created a center for early German Romanticism alongside Hegel and the brothers Schlegel. Ludwig Tieck, Novalis, Heinrich von Kleist, and Friedrich Hölderlin emerged as important writers during this period. Later figures like E.T.A. Hoffmann wrote Der Sandman in 1817 with darker motifs containing gothic elements. Joseph Freiherr von Eichendorff published Das Marmorbild in 1819 featuring similar themes. Clemens Brentano and Achim von Arnim met regularly in literary circles at Heidelberg before publishing Des Knaben Wunderhorn between 1806 and 1808. This collection contained versified folk tales drawn from oral traditions. The Brothers Grimm released their first collection of fairy tales in 1812 based on collected folk stories rather than invented ones. Jacob Grimm later published Deutsche Mythologie in 1835 as an academic work on Germanic mythology. Schiller's play The Robbers appeared in 1781 using highly emotional language to depict physical violence.
William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge launched the Romantic Age in English literature through their joint publication Lyrical Ballads in 1798. Most poems within that volume were written by Wordsworth and dealt with lives of poor people in his native Lake District or his feelings about nature. He developed these ideas further in his long poem The Prelude which remained unpublished during his lifetime. The longest piece in the collection was Coleridge's The Rime of the Ancient Mariner showing the Gothic side of English Romanticism with exotic settings. Lord Byron achieved enormous fame throughout Europe with Childe Harold's Pilgrimage starting in 1812. Goethe called Byron undoubtedly the greatest genius of our century. Walter Scott gained immediate success with The Lay of the Last Minstrel in 1805 followed by Marmion in 1808. Both works were set in the distant Scottish past already evoked in Ossian. Scott effectively invented the historical novel beginning in 1814 with Waverley set in the 1745 Jacobite rising. This became a highly profitable success leading to over twenty further Waverley Novels over seventeen years. Mary Shelley wrote Frankenstein after a famous stay on Lake Geneva with Byron and Percy Bysshe Shelley in 1816. John William Polidori created The Vampyre during that same gathering. Robert Burns wrote lyrics reflecting Scotland while Thomas Moore from Ireland reflected their countries through folk literature.
Allan Ramsay laid foundations for reawakening interest in older Scottish literature between 1686 and 1758 while leading trends toward pastoral poetry. James Macpherson published Fingal in 1762 claiming it was written by the ancient bard Ossian though later evidence showed these were flowery adaptations made to suit aesthetic expectations. His appreciation of natural beauty brought about the Romantic movement especially in German literature through influence on Johann Gottfried von Herder and Goethe. Napoleon himself popularized these works in France. Robert Burns served as national poet of Scotland writing Auld Lang Syne often sung at Hogmanay and Scots Wha Hae serving as unofficial anthem. Walter Scott began collecting and publishing Scottish ballads before launching his prose career with Waverley in 1814. Other major literary figures included James Hogg who lived from 1770 to 1835, Allan Cunningham spanning 1784 to 1842, and John Galt covering 1779 to 1839. The Edinburgh Review founded in 1802 and Blackwood's Magazine established in 1817 became two most important literary magazines of the era. These publications caused Edinburgh to emerge as cultural capital of Britain contributing to formation of British Isles nationalism. Joanna Baillie wrote closet dramas primarily designed for reading rather than performance including work influenced by ballad tradition and Gothic Romanticism.
François-René de Chateaubriand returned to France from exile under Napoleon after remaining a royalist throughout the Revolution. His novella René appeared in 1802 anticipating Byron's alienated hero while Génie du christianisme defended religion and medieval spirit that same year. French Romanticism developed later in literature than visual arts following the Bourbon Restoration. Cliques of pro- and anti-Romantics formed producing raucous vocalizing during performances. One theatregoer shouted in 1822 that Shakespeare is Wellington's aide-de-camp. Victor Hugo achieved success on stage with Hernani featuring historical drama in quasi-Shakespearean style with riotous performances upon first run in 1830. Alexandre Dumas began as dramatist with Henri III et sa cour in 1829 before turning to novels like The Three Musketeers and The Count of Monte Cristo both published in 1844. Hugo also wrote The Hunchback of Notre-Dame in 1831 becoming paradigm of French Romantic movement. Prosper Mérimée originated story of Carmen with his novella published in 1845. Alfred de Musset, Gérard de Nerval, Alphonse de Lamartine, and Théophile Gautier formed group of poets active between 1830s and 1850s. Stendhal stands out today as most highly regarded novelist though he often seen as forerunner of Realism due to penetrating psychological insight into characters.
Washington Irving published The Legend of Sleepy Hollow in 1820 and Rip Van Winkle in 1819 marking early appearance of American Romantic Gothic literature. James Fenimore Cooper followed from 1823 onwards with Leatherstocking Tales emphasizing heroic simplicity and fervent landscape descriptions of mythicized frontier peopled by noble savages similar to Rousseau's philosophical theory exemplified by character Uncas from The Last of the Mohicans. Edgar Allan Poe created tales of macabre and balladic poetry more influential in France than at home. Nathaniel Hawthorne developed romantic American novel fully with atmosphere and drama of The Scarlet Letter published in 1850. Henry David Thoreau and Ralph Waldo Emerson showed elements of influence through later Transcendentalist writings while Walt Whitman embraced romantic realism. Emily Dickinson wrote poetry nearly unread during her own lifetime whereas Herman Melville produced Moby-Dick as epitome of American Romantic literature. By 1880s psychological and social realism competed with Romanticism in novels. William Cullen Bryant published To a Waterfowl in 1818 signaling publication of Romantic poetry in United States. American Romantics demonstrated high level moral enthusiasm commitment to individualism unfolding self emphasis intuitive perception assumption natural world inherently good human society filled corruption.
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Common questions
When did James Macpherson publish the Ossian cycle poems that sparked the Romantic movement?
James Macpherson published the collection of poems known as the Ossian cycle in 1762. These works described natural beauty and ancient legends with emotional intensity to influence writers like Johann Wolfgang von Goethe.
What year did William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge launch the Romantic Age in English literature?
William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge launched the Romantic Age through their joint publication Lyrical Ballads in 1798. Most poems within that volume were written by Wordsworth and dealt with lives of poor people in his native Lake District or his feelings about nature.
Which German philosopher created a center for early German Romanticism alongside Hegel and the brothers Schlegel?
Philosophers Johann Gottlieb Fichte and Friedrich Schelling lived in Jena where they created a center for early German Romanticism alongside Hegel and the brothers Schlegel. Ludwig Tieck, Novalis, Heinrich von Kleist, and Friedrich Hölderlin emerged as important writers during this period.
In what year did Victor Hugo achieve success on stage with Hernani featuring historical drama in quasi-Shakespearean style?
Victor Hugo achieved success on stage with Hernani featuring historical drama in quasi-Shakespearean style with riotous performances upon first run in 1830. This work became a paradigm of French Romantic movement following the Bourbon Restoration.
When was The Scarlet Letter published to develop romantic American novel fully with atmosphere and drama?
Nathaniel Hawthorne developed romantic American novel fully with atmosphere and drama of The Scarlet Letter published in 1850. By 1880s psychological and social realism competed with Romanticism in novels.