Ramesses II
In 1279 BC, a young boy named Ramesses stood at the edge of childhood as his grandfather, Pharaoh Horemheb, appointed his father to the throne. This event marked the beginning of a reign that would stretch for sixty-six years and seven days, making it one of the longest in recorded human history. The boy was not born into royalty; his grandfather had been a military officer who rose through the ranks before becoming pharaoh himself. When Ramesses I died, his son Seti I took power and designated the eleven-year-old Ramesses as prince regent. At age fourteen, he began governing on behalf of his father, learning the arts of statecraft while still a teenager.
Historical records from Papyrus Gurob fragment L confirm the precise end of this long rule. The document shows Year 67 of Ramesses II immediately followed by Year 1 of Merneptah, his successor. This calendar evidence suggests the king died around the 13th of August 1213 BC after ruling for over six decades. The Jewish historian Josephus later wrote about a reign lasting sixty-six years and two months, which aligns closely with modern calculations. Egyptologists now believe the exact date falls within a narrow window between the third and thirteenth day of the second month of the Egyptian calendar year.
On the 1st of May 1274 BC, Ramesses arrived at Kadesh with an army estimated to number one hundred thousand men. He faced the Hittite Empire under King Muwatalli II in what would become history's most famous stalemate. The Egyptian forces were caught in a Hittite ambush that smashed through their second division and attacked their camp directly. Chariots raged across the battlefield as survivors swam the Orontes River to reach safety behind city walls.
Despite claiming victory in inscriptions carved into temple walls, Ramesses could not sustain a siege and returned home empty-handed. The Hittites remained masters of Syria while Egypt held only Canaan. Yet the pharaoh continued fighting, launching campaigns in years eight and nine that pushed his armies north to Dapur. Six of his youthful sons participated in these battles wearing side locks, still children by ancient standards. By November 1272 BC, he was back in Egypt at Heliopolis, having achieved nothing decisive against his northern enemies.
Later campaigns in year eighteen saw him erecting steles at Beth Shean on the 19th of January 1261 BC. These monuments recorded victories that proved ephemeral since neither power could decisively defeat the other. The thin strip of territory between Amurru and Kadesh remained unstable ground where control shifted repeatedly.
In 1259 BC, during the twenty-first year of his reign, Ramesses concluded an agreement with King Hattusili III of the Hittite Empire. This treaty became known to modern scholars as the Treaty of Kadesh, one of the earliest recorded peace agreements in human history. The document existed in two versions: Egyptian hieroglyphs and Hittite cuneiform script. While most text matched perfectly, each version told a different story about who had sued for peace first.
A silver plaque containing the treaty's terms traveled from Hatti to Egypt and was carved into temple walls at Karnak. The agreement settled disputes over Canaan but arose from a diplomatic crisis when Muršili III fled to Egypt after being deposed by his uncle. When Hattusili demanded extradition, Ramesses denied knowledge of the fugitive's whereabouts. Eventually both empires agreed to end hostilities through this written pact.
No further Egyptian campaigns in Canaan appeared after the treaty's conclusion. The northern border remained quiet until Ramesses' death, allowing his rule to stay strong throughout the final decades of his life. The pharaoh even refused to involve himself in hostile acts against the Hittites when asked by the King of Mira.
In 1255 BC, Ramesses and Queen Nefertari traveled to Nubia to inaugurate Abu Simbel, a temple complex that would become his greatest monument. This structure stood as ego cast into stone, intended to make him not only Egypt's greatest pharaoh but also one of its deities. The facade featured colossal statues blocking the entrance for four years before Swiss explorer Johann Ludwig Burckhardt discovered it in 1813.
Another massive project began in year three of his reign: Pi-Ramesses, a new capital city built in the eastern Delta. This location served as a summer palace during Seti I's time but became the main staging point for Syrian campaigns. The city contained huge temples, vast residential palaces, and even its own zoo. Today only colossal feet remain above ground while the rest lies buried beneath fields near modern Qantir.
The Ramesseum mortuary temple rose between Qurna and the desert with two courts preceded by an enormous pylon. Scenes depicting triumph over Hittite forces fleeing Kadesh covered the walls alongside feast honors of Min, god of fertility. Thirty-nine out of forty-eight columns still stand in the great hypostyle hall decorated with gold stars on blue ceilings.
By tradition, Sed festivals honored and rejuvenated the pharaoh's strength every thirty years after the first celebration. Ramesses II broke all records by holding thirteen or fourteen such events instead of the usual single occurrence. These celebrations sometimes happened after just two years rather than waiting the full three-year cycle required by custom.
As of Year 28 of his reign, texts discovered at Deir el-Medina showed he favored the god Amun above all other divinities. His country had become more prosperous and powerful than it had been in nearly a century. Peace maintained borders while numerous monuments spread across the empire from Delta to Nubia.
Bronze braziers used for burning incense and gold bracelets shaped like ducks survive as artifacts from these grand ceremonies. Reused building blocks found in Tanis once formed part of depictions showing the pharaoh during these jubilee celebrations. The unprecedented frequency of these festivals demonstrated how deeply Ramesses wanted to prove his divine nature to his people.
At about ninety years old, Ramesses died suffering from severe dental problems, arthritis, hardening of arteries, and heart disease. His mummy was originally buried in tomb KV7 within the Valley of the Kings before priests moved it multiple times due to looting. Eventually they placed it inside queen Ahmose Inhapy's tomb then later transferred it again to high priest Pinedjem II's burial chamber.
In September 1976, French authorities sent the mummy to Paris for forensic examination after President Valéry Giscard d'Estaing convinced Egyptian officials. Pierre-Fernand Ceccaldi observed slightly wavy red hair that proved natural rather than dyed by embalming spices. This trait suggested he came from a family of redheads since ancient Egyptians associated red-haired individuals with Set, the enemy of Horus.
Persistent claims about issuing passports for the journey remain incorrect though extensive documentation existed. After being irradiated to eliminate fungi and insects, the mummy returned to Egypt in May 1977. In April 2021, it moved once more during the Pharaohs' Golden Parade to Cairo's National Museum of Egyptian Civilization alongside seventeen other kings.
Percy Bysshe Shelley wrote his famous poem Ozymandias based on Ramesses II, quoting an inscription stating King of Kings am I Osymandias. Diodorus Siculus recorded similar words on sculpture bases claiming anyone knowing how great he was should surpass one of his works. Modern fiction continues drawing inspiration from this figure through novels like Christian Jacq's Ramsès series and Anne Rice's The Mummy or Ramses the Damned published in 1989.
Film adaptations have portrayed him as both vengeful tyrant and adoptive brother to Moses depending on the story being told. Yul Brynner played the role in Cecil B. DeMille's classic The Ten Commandments released in 1956 while Ralph Fiennes voiced him in The Prince of Animation film from 1998. Joel Edgerton appeared in Exodus: Gods and Kings in 2014 and Sérgio Marone starred in Brazilian telenovela Os Dez Mandamentos between 2015 and 2016.
Video games including Civilization V feature him as a playable leader while underground rock band The Fugs released their song Ramses II Is Dead My Love on their 1968 album It Crawled into My Hand Honest.
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Common questions
When did Ramesses II die and how long was his reign?
Ramesses II died around the 13th of August 1213 BC after ruling for sixty-six years and seven days. Historical records from Papyrus Gurob fragment L confirm this duration by showing Year 67 immediately followed by Year 1 of Merneptah.
What happened during the Battle of Kadesh on the 1st of May 1274 BC?
Ramesses arrived at Kadesh with an army estimated to number one hundred thousand men and faced the Hittite Empire under King Muwatalli II. The Egyptian forces were caught in a Hittite ambush that smashed through their second division and attacked their camp directly before survivors swam the Orontes River to reach safety behind city walls.
Who signed the Treaty of Kadesh in 1259 BC and what versions exist?
Ramesses concluded an agreement with King Hattusili III of the Hittite Empire in 1259 BC which became known as the Treaty of Kadesh. This document existed in two versions featuring Egyptian hieroglyphs and Hittite cuneiform script where each version told a different story about who had sued for peace first.
When was Abu Simbel inaugurated and when did explorers find it?
Ramesses and Queen Nefertari traveled to Nubia to inaugurate Abu Simbel in 1255 BC while Swiss explorer Johann Ludwig Burckhardt discovered the temple complex in 1813. The facade featured colossal statues blocking the entrance for four years before the discovery occurred.
What health issues caused Ramesses II death at about ninety years old?
Ramesses died suffering from severe dental problems, arthritis, hardening of arteries, and heart disease. His mummy was originally buried in tomb KV7 within the Valley of the Kings before priests moved it multiple times due to looting.