Manila massacre

• 1. The Defiant Withdrawal

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  On the 10th of February 1945, citizens of Manila ran for safety from suburbs burned by Japanese soldiers. General Tomoyuki Yamashita had insisted on a complete withdrawal of Japanese troops from Manila in January 1945. He believed he could not defend the city with his available forces. His goal was to preserve as large a force as possible in the rural Sierra Madre mountain region of northern Luzon. This strategic decision aimed to keep fighting power intact for future operations. However, about 10,000 Japanese marines under Rear Admiral Sanji Iwabuchi chose to ignore this order. They decided to remain in Manila instead of retreating. Iwabuchi stood behind the massacre that followed and committed suicide during the battle. The United States Army advanced into the city of Manila to drive these troops out. During lulls in the battle for control of the city, violence erupted against civilians.

• 2. Slaughter In Sacred Spaces

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  Violent mutilations, rapes, and massacres occurred in schools, hospitals and convents throughout February 1945. Dr. Antonio Gisbert told of the murder of his father and brother at the Palacio del Gobernador. He stated, "I am one of those few survivors, not more than 50 in all out of more than 3000 men herded into Fort Santiago." Two days later, those men were massacred. The Japanese forced Filipino women and children into the front lines as human shields. Those who survived were then murdered by the Japanese. At least 6,000 non-combatants interned in San Agustin Church in Intramuros were killed between the 6th and the 22nd of February 1945. Many either starved to death or used as human shields. About 2,000 non-combatants were killed from gunfire and debris at La Concordia College on the 8th of February 1945. More than 600 noncombatants were executed at St. Paul College in Malate on the 9th of February 1945.

• 3. The Mop-Up And Death Toll

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  The Japanese conducted mop-up operations to clear north Manila of guerrillas during February 1945. They executed more than 54,000 Filipinos, including children, as they passed through towns. Pregnant Filipino women were murdered by having their bellies ripped open while fleeing civilians were executed. The combined death toll of civilians for the Battle of Manila was about 100,000. Most of these deaths were attributed to massacres by Japanese forces. Some historians suggest that 100,000 to 500,000 died as a result of the Manila massacre on its own. This figure excludes other causes like American artillery fire. A Japanese estimate claimed that American firepower caused 40 percent of the total Filipino deaths during the battle. At least 100 Catholic priests, Spaniards and other civilians in air raid shelters in Fort McKinley were killed between the 19th and the 20th of February 1945. About 142 Filipino and Spanish people were bombed by grenades at Palacio del Gobernador on the 19th of February 1945.

• 4. The Bayview Hotel Horror

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  The Bayview Hotel was used as a designated rape center during the battle. According to testimony at the Yamashita war crimes trial, 400 women and girls were rounded up from Manila's wealthy Ermita district. A selection board picked out the 25 women who were considered most beautiful. These women and girls, many of them 12 to 14 years old, were taken to the hotel. Japanese enlisted men and officers took turns raping them. At least 20 Japanese soldiers raped a young girl before slicing her breasts off. A Japanese soldier placed her mutilated breasts on his chest to mimic a woman while others laughed. The Japanese then doused the young girl and two other women who were raped to death in gasoline and set them all on fire. They went on setting the entire club on fire killing many of its inhabitants. Women escaping the building were caught and raped by the Japanese. Twenty-eight-year-old Julia Lopez had her breasts sliced off and her hair set on fire.

• 5. The Trial Of General Yamashita

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  General Tomoyuki Yamashita was convicted as a war criminal for the Manila massacre despite ordering an evacuation. Admiral Iwabuchi's marines had committed the atrocities and Yamashita had earlier ordered him to evacuate Manila. Former war-crimes prosecutor Allan Ryan argues there was no evidence that Yamashita committed crimes or ordered others to do so. However, Yamashita's lawyers used a chain of command technicality defense regarding how the Japanese Navy were solely responsible. The prosecution claimed Yamashita was held responsible for many other war crimes outside of Manila. These included the Palawan massacre of 139 U.S. POWs and the execution of Philippine Army general Vicente Lim in December 1944. The Japanese Navy and Rear Admiral Sanji Iwabuchi had nothing to do with massacres done by Yamashita's Kempeitai and regular Army soldiers. General MacArthur, five other generals, and the Supreme Court of the United States ultimately held Yamashita responsible. President Harry S. Truman agreed with the verdict and chose not to pardon Yamashita. Yamashita was hanged on the 23rd of February 1946 in a camp south of Manila.

• 6. The Legal Standard And Controversy

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  Yamashita was convicted on the grounds that he made no attempt to discover or stop atrocities from being committed. This would become known as the Yamashita standard. A group of American military lawyers attempted to defend General Yamashita by appealing to the U.S. Supreme Court. Their appeal failed with a vote of 5 to 2. Two dissenting Supreme Court Justices called the entire trial a miscarriage of justice. They described it as an exercise in vengeance and a denial of human rights. Akira Mutō, Yamashita's chief of staff, was also held responsible for the massacre and other war crimes. His trial started in October 1945 alongside Yamashita's. Mutō was executed on the 23rd of December 1948. The legal proceedings established a precedent regarding command responsibility during wartime. It remains one of the most controversial aspects of post-war Japanese accountability.