Orientalism
The word orient entered the English language as the Middle French orient in the late medieval period. Geoffrey Chaucer wrote about conquering many great realms in the orient within his Monk's Tale of 1375. The Latin root oriēns meant the eastern part of the world or the sky whence comes the sun. This geographical term shifted meaning over centuries to describe countries east of the Mediterranean Sea and Southern Europe. Aneurin Bevan used an expanded denotation of the Orient that comprehended East Asia in his book In Place of Fear published in 1952. Edward Said argued that Orientalism enables political, economic, cultural and social domination of the West not just during colonial times but also in the present.
Jean-Léon Gérôme served as honorary president of the French Society of Orientalist Painters founded in 1893. Eugène Delacroix visited Algeria and Morocco as part of a diplomatic mission to the Sultan of Morocco in 1832. He painted scenes from this trip including Women of Algiers after gaining access to women's quarters. Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres painted The Turkish Bath in 1862 which made eroticized Orient publicly acceptable through diffuse generalizing of female forms. William Holman Hunt traveled to Istanbul and Jerusalem in 1840 with a Protestant agenda to reform religious painting. He died off Gibraltar during the return voyage before completing more studies. David Roberts produced architectural and landscape views of antiquities and published very successful books of lithographs between 1796 and 1864. Edwin Lord Weeks became the first known American artist to visit the British Raj in 1883.
Cultural critic Edward Said published his book Orientalism in 1978 to redefine the term as a pervasive Western tradition of prejudiced outsider-interpretations. Said developed Antonio Gramsci's theory of cultural hegemony and Michel Foucault's theorisation of discourse to criticize scholarly traditions of Oriental studies. He argued that the idea of representation is theatrical where the Orient serves as stage on which the whole East is confined. Bernard Lewis and Fouad Ajami were among contemporary scholars who perpetuated the tradition of outsider-interpretation of Arabo-Islamic cultures. Said stated that learned Orientalists subject is not so much the East itself but the East made known and therefore less fearsome to the Western reading public. The book became foundational text of post-colonial cultural studies within academic circles after its publication.
The Moresque style of Renaissance ornament began in late 15th century and was used in types of work such as bookbinding until almost present day. William Hodges published views of India from about 1795 alongside William Daniell and Thomas Daniell. Turquerie continued at least until 18th century and included use of Turkish styles in decorative arts plus adoption of Turkish costume at times. Chinoiserie peaked in waves especially Rococo Chinoiserie between 1740 and 1770. Tin-glazed pottery made at Delft adopted genuine Ming-era blue and white porcelain from early 17th century. Kew has a magnificent Great Pagoda designed by William Chambers. The Wilhelma built in 1846 in Stuttgart stands as example of Moorish Revival architecture. Phineas Taylor Barnum built Iranistan mansion perceived to be Mogul style in 1848 which triggered construction of Oriental Villas in America.
Giuseppe Verdi composed opera Aida set in Egypt as portrayed through content and visual spectacle in 1871. Balakirev's Islamey, Borodin's Prince Igor and Rimsky-Korsakov's Scheherazade became quintessentially Russian works composed in orientalist style. Richard Taruskin identified strain of Orientalism in 19th-century Russian music where East functions as sign or metaphor as imaginary geography as historical fiction. Gustav Holst composed Beni Mora evoking languid heady Arabian atmosphere in United Kingdom. Les Baxter created exotica music in late 1950s including composition City of Veils. Lord Byron wrote four long Turkish tales in poetry making exotic fantasy Oriental settings significant theme in literature of Romanticism. Gustave Flaubert used ancient Carthage in North Africa as foil to ancient Rome in his novel Salammbô published during mid-19th century.
First Western translation of Sanskrit text appeared in 1785 marking growing interest in Indian culture and languages. Translations of Upanishads first appeared in 1801 and 1802 which Arthur Schopenhauer called consolation of my life. Theosophical Society searched for ancient wisdom from East and spread Eastern religious ideas in West between 1878 and 1882. Helena Blavatsky along with H.S. Olcott and Anagarika Dharmapala were instrumental in Western transmission and revival of Theravada Buddhism. Vivekananda popularized modernised interpretation of Advaita Vedanta during later 19th and early 20th century emphasizing personal experience over scriptural authority. Ralph Waldo Emerson pioneered idea of spirituality as distinct field influenced by Asian spirituality through 19th-century transcendentalism movement.
Edward Said argued that western powers and influential individuals othered the Orient through articularizing trends present in Asian works by Indian Chinese and Japanese writers. Bollywood cinema represents significant development in manner Orientalism has taken shape in non-Western film. Lisa Lau and Ana Cristina Mendes used term re-orientalism to refer how Eastern self-representation is based on Western referential points. Eighteenth century Qing emperors in China had material fascination with Occidenterie objects inspired by Western art and architecture. Scholars examined local weaponization of Orientalist discourses against regional and ethnic others operating comparatively across different national contexts including Iran and Turkey. A study of sphere of othering in relationships between Greece and Germany during sovereign debt crisis years pointed to volatile ingredients including fascination mixed with condescension aversion admiration and hopes for escape from oppressive northern European lifestyle.
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Common questions
When did the word orient enter the English language?
The word orient entered the English language as the Middle French orient in the late medieval period. Geoffrey Chaucer wrote about conquering many great realms in the orient within his Monk's Tale of 1375.
What year was Edward Said book Orientalism published?
Cultural critic Edward Said published his book Orientalism in 1978 to redefine the term as a pervasive Western tradition of prejudiced outsider-interpretations. The book became foundational text of post-colonial cultural studies within academic circles after its publication.
Who painted The Turkish Bath and when was it created?
Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres painted The Turkish Bath in 1862 which made eroticized Orient publicly acceptable through diffuse generalizing of female forms. This work contributed to the public acceptance of eroticized depictions of the East.
Which artist visited Algeria and Morocco during a diplomatic mission in 1832?
Eugène Delacroix visited Algeria and Morocco as part of a diplomatic mission to the Sultan of Morocco in 1832. He painted scenes from this trip including Women of Algiers after gaining access to women's quarters.
When did the first Western translation of Sanskrit texts appear?
First Western translation of Sanskrit text appeared in 1785 marking growing interest in Indian culture and languages. Translations of Upanishads first appeared in 1801 and 1802 which Arthur Schopenhauer called consolation of my life.