Muslim conquests of Afghanistan

• 1. Arab Expansion Into Khorasan

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  Fifteen years after the battle of Nahāvand in 642 AD, Arab forces controlled all Sasanian domains except parts of Afghanistan. The Muslim conquests began as armies moved east from Iraq into central Persia and then toward Khorasan, Sistan, and Transoxiana. Herat and Sistan fell quickly to advancing Arabs carrying Islam, but other areas often revolted whenever their power weakened. Yazdegerd III, the last Sasanian king, fled to Merv after losing support in Kerman. He later sought refuge with the Khakan of Turks, crossing the Oxus River to join a massive cavalry force. This army included men from Soghd, Turkestan, Balkh, and Tokharistan, totaling around 50,000 cavalry. They met Arab commander Ahnaf ibn Qais at Deir al-Ahnaf, where fighting continued for two months. Ahnaf killed three Turkic chiefs during an inspection night, causing the Khakan to withdraw across the river. Yazdegerd eventually fled to Turkestan while his officials surrendered to the Arabs. The region remained unstable as local potentates rebelled repeatedly, appealing to outside powers like the Hephthalites or Chinese emperors. A revolt led by Qarin in Quhistan gathered 40,000 insurgents but was crushed by a surprise attack. By 673, Abbad b. Ziyad brought Kandahar under caliphal control, though stability remained fragile.

• 2. The Zunbil Resistance Front

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  Zabulistan served as a barrier against Muslim expansion into the Indus Valley for centuries. The Zunbils ruled this territory stretching between Ghazni and Bost, maintaining independence through fierce resistance. In 698, the "Army of Destruction" marched toward Zamindawar but found it barren and foodless. The Zunbils lured these invaders into inhospitable terrain before trapping them in a valley. Ubaidallah offered hostages including his three sons and promised no future raids to save his army. Only 5,000 survivors reached Bust after suffering starvation and thirst in what became known as the Desert of Bust. Many died from gorging themselves on food sent to them afterward. Another expedition called the "Army of Peacocks" arrived in spring 699 with 40,000 troops from Kufa and Basra. These proud leaders mutinied against enforced emigration and returned to Iraq where they were crushed by Syrian troops. Ibn al-Ash'ath fled to Sistan only to be abducted by Iyad b. Himyan. The Zunbil threatened to slaughter everyone unless he was handed over. A truce finally declared required tribute payments in kind while Al-Hajjaj promised not to attack again. Despite repeated campaigns, the Zunbils maintained their autonomy until Ya'qub ibn al-Layth killed both Salih b. al-Nadr and the last Zunbil king in 865.

• 3. Tokharistan And Buddhist Balkh

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  Balkh stood as one of the greatest urban centers of northeastern Iran located upon crossroads of trade routes. Historical evidence shows Tokharistan was the only area conquered by Arabs where Buddhism heavily flourished. Sanskrit studies continued there up to the conquest despite Arab rule. The eighth-century Korean traveler Hui'Chao visited around 726 and described all inhabitants as Buddhists under Arab control. Nava Vihara served as the largest Buddhist monastery in Balkh before being Persianized to Naw Bahara after Islamic conquest. Accounts differ on whether this complex survived; some sources claim it was destroyed under Mu'awiya in the 650s while others suggest it remained intact into the tenth century. Hudud al-'Alam describes remaining royal buildings with painted images and carvings that survived into the author's time. Qutayba ibn Muslim led the final conquest of Balkh in spring 705. One version states the city surrendered peacefully while another mentions a revolt among residents. Four years later, Tabari described the city as ruined following internal feuds among Arab troops. Asad ibn Abdallah al-Qasri restored the city in 725 using Barmak as his agent. Khalid, grandson of Barmak, became vizier of the Arab empire and took personal interest in Sanskrit works and Indian religions. This unique blend of cultures persisted until political pressures eventually shifted religious demographics.

• 4. Saffarid Dynasty Conquests

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  Ya'qub ibn al-Layth al-Saffar overthrew Tahirid rule in Sistan in 854, establishing himself as the first independent Iranian ruler in the post-Islamic era. He joined Salih b. al-Nadr's band who had become Bust's amir in 852 before driving out the Tahirid governor. Dirham b. Nasr was subsequently overthrown by Ya'qub in 861. His brother Amr advanced alongside him toward Baghdad and Kabul itself along historic routes. Salih fled to ar-Rukhkhaj where he received help from the Zunbil. Both men were killed by Ya'qub in 865. Abu Sa'id Gardezi records that Ya'qub advanced from Sistan to Bust then occupied Panjway and Tiginabad. He defeated and killed the Zunbil though exact dates remain unclear. Satish Chandra states Zabulistan was finally conquered in 870 AD when Yakub became virtual ruler of neighboring Siestan. The king was killed and his subjects made Muslims according to this account. Muhammad Aufi's Jawami ul-Hikayat describes how Yaqub employed treachery during invasion of Zabul. His troops concealed lances behind horses while wearing mail under garments. When Yaqub drew near Rusal, he bowed as if paying homage but thrust a lance into the ruler's back causing immediate death. Great bloodshed ensued as infidels saw the head upon a spear point and took flight. This victory achieved through deception marked the end of centuries-long resistance.

• 5. Ghaznavid Mass Islamization

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  Mahmud of Ghazni ruled from 998 to 1030 and defeated the Hindu Shahi dynasty who had expelled them from Gandhara. He encouraged mass conversions throughout Afghanistan and India after subjugating Kabul and surrounding regions. Indian soldiers formed part of Mahmud's army which later faced challenges crossing the Hindu Kush mountains. Ibn Battuta described these mountains meaning "slayer of Indians" because large numbers of slaves brought from India died there due to treacherous weather. Before conversion, Nuristanis practiced ancient Hinduism infused with locally developed accretions. They remained politically independent until conquered and converted under Afghan Amir Abdul Rahman Khan between 1895 and 1896. The region from Nuristan to Kashmir hosted vast Kafir cultures that persisted long after initial Arab conquests. No permanent control was ever established on Ghur during early periods despite occasional raids supplying slaves to markets in Khorasan. Istakhari called it land of infidels annexed because of its Muslim minority while Hudud al-'Alam stated it had mostly-Muslim population by later times. Full Islamization only achieved itself between tenth and twelfth centuries under Ghaznavid and Ghurid dynasties who patronized religious institutions.

• 6. Pashtun Migration And Demographics

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  Prior to Pashtun settlement in the Kabul River valley, Tajiks formed dominant populations across Kabul, Nangarhar, Logar Valley, and Laghman in eastern Afghanistan. Pashtuns began settling westward from Sulaiman Mountains in south before or during sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. They displaced or subjugated indigenous populations including Tajiks, Hazaras, Farsiwanis, Nuristanis, and Pashayi people. The Pashtun habitat during their conquest by Mahmud lay within the Sulaiman Mountains themselves. Before this migration, various ethnic groups maintained distinct cultural identities across different valleys. Historical records indicate these shifts occurred gradually over several centuries rather than through single events. The displacement process involved complex interactions between migrating tribes and settled agricultural communities already established in fertile river valleys. These demographic changes fundamentally altered the region's social fabric long after initial military conquests had ended.