Litter (vehicle): the story on HearLore

Litter (vehicle)

The most powerful engine in human history for centuries was not steam or electricity, but the human shoulder. Before the invention of the wheel for transport, or when roads were too treacherous for wheels, the litter served as the primary vehicle for the elite across the globe. This was not merely a chair on poles; it was a complex system of labor, status, and engineering that defined social hierarchies from ancient Egypt to colonial America. In pharaonic Egypt, rulers and divinities were transported in litters during public processions, blurring the line between the mortal and the divine. The Ark of the Covenant in the Book of Exodus resembles such a litter, suggesting that the concept of a portable throne for a god was ancient and deeply rooted in religious tradition. In Rome, the litter, known as the lectica, was the exclusive domain of the imperial family and the rich elite, serving as a mobile extension of their power when they were not mounted on horseback. The Third Council of Braga in 675 AD even issued a decree that bishops must walk to the church rather than be carried in a litter by deacons, highlighting how the vehicle was so associated with status that it required ecclesiastical intervention to curb its use by religious leaders. The mechanics of the litter were deceptively simple yet required immense physical coordination. Porters would place the carrying poles directly upon their shoulders or use a yoke to transfer the load, a technique that allowed for efficient movement of heavy loads. The largest litters, such as those used by Chinese emperors, resembled small rooms upon a platform borne upon the shoulders of a dozen or more people, turning a single individual into a walking palace. This reliance on human power meant that the speed and endurance of the litter were entirely dependent on the physical condition and training of the bearers, who often worked in relays to maintain a pace that could rival post horses at the gallop, as noted in accounts of the Kingdom of Kongo.

The Silk Curtain

In the humid climates of Asia, the litter evolved from a simple transport device into a private sanctuary, a mobile room that shielded the occupant from the elements and the prying eyes of the public. The palanquin, derived from the Sanskrit word palyanka meaning bed or couch, became the standard for the Indian subcontinent, where women of rank always traveled by this means. These were not merely chairs but enclosed wooden boxes, sometimes eight feet long, four feet wide, and four feet high, with openings screened by curtains or shutters. The interiors were furnished with bedding and pillows, and the ornamentation reflected the social status of the traveler, ranging from simple bamboo frames to lacquer paintwork and cast bronze finials. Ibn Batutta described these palanquins as being carried by eight men in two lots of four, who rested and carried in turn, ensuring a steady pace through the bustling bazaars and sultan's gates. The most ornate palanquins featured silk curtains for women, a necessity in a society where seclusion was paramount. In the early 19th century, the palanquin was the most prevalent mode of long-distance transport for the affluent, with the government's dak system providing relays of bearers to convey a traveler between stations. The distance between these stations averaged about thirty miles and could be covered in three hours, a relay system that included torch-bearers, luggage-porters, and eight palanquin-bearers working in gangs of four. This system allowed passengers to travel straight through or break their journey at dak bungalows, creating a network of human-powered transit that predated the railway by centuries. The palanquin was so popular among European residents in India that the Court of Directors of the East India Company had to prohibit junior clerks from purchasing and maintaining them in 1758, fearing that the indulgence led to neglect of business in favor of rambling. By the beginning of the 20th century, however, the palanquin was nearly obsolete among the better class of Europeans, supplanted by rickshaws and the advent of steamers and railways. Yet, the tradition persists in ceremonial occasions, such as the doli that carries the bride in a traditional wedding, or the religious images carried in Hindu processions, keeping the ancient practice alive in the modern world.

Common questions

What was the primary vehicle for the elite before the invention of the wheel for transport?

The litter served as the primary vehicle for the elite across the globe before the invention of the wheel for transport. This human-powered wheelless vehicle was used when roads were too treacherous for wheeled vehicles. It functioned as a complex system of labor, status, and engineering that defined social hierarchies from ancient Egypt to colonial America.

When did the Third Council of Braga issue a decree regarding bishops and litters?

The Third Council of Braga issued a decree in 675 AD that required bishops to walk to the church rather than be carried in a litter by deacons. This ecclesiastical intervention highlighted how the vehicle was so associated with status that it required regulation to curb its use by religious leaders. The decree specifically targeted the practice of bishops being carried in litters.

How large were the palanquins used in the Indian subcontinent during the early 19th century?

Palanquins in the Indian subcontinent were enclosed wooden boxes that measured eight feet long, four feet wide, and four feet high. These structures featured openings screened by curtains or shutters and were furnished with bedding and pillows. The interiors reflected the social status of the traveler through ornamentation ranging from simple bamboo frames to lacquer paintwork and cast bronze finials.

Who carried Henry VIII of England in a sedan chair and when did he reign?

Henry VIII of England reigned from 1509 to 1547 and was carried around in a sedan chair requiring four strong chairmen to carry him towards the end of his life. The chairmen were licensed and operated under a monopoly granted by King Charles I. Each chair was assigned a number and the practice of carrying people in chairs had been established for decades before the word sedan entered the English language in 1615.

What types of litters were used in Korea and China for royalty and weddings?

In Korea, royalty and aristocrats were carried in wooden litters called gama which were primarily used by royalty and government officials. There were six types of gama assigned to different government official rankings and they were preferred over wheeled vehicles due to the difficulties posed by the mountainous terrain. In China, the bridal chair was a traditional bride carried to her wedding ceremony by a shoulder carriage that was lacquered in an auspicious shade of red and equipped with red silk curtains to screen the bride from onlookers.

When did Benjamin Franklin travel to the United States Constitutional Convention in a sedan chair?

Benjamin Franklin traveled to meetings of the United States Constitutional Convention in 1787 in a sedan chair carried by four prisoners. He was 81 years old and in generally declining health at the time. This act of using prisoners to carry the chair of the founding father of the United States is a striking example of the intersection of power, labor, and the physical limitations of the elderly.

The Shadow of the City

In the narrow, unpaved streets of 17th and 18th-century London, the sedan chair became the only viable mode of transport for the wealthy, a solution to the problem of traffic congestion that would not be solved again until the invention of the automobile. The word sedan, derived from the Latin sedere meaning to sit, entered the English language in 1615, but the practice of carrying people in chairs had been established for decades. Henry VIII of England, who reigned from 1509 to 1547, was carried around in a sedan chair, requiring four strong chairmen to carry him towards the end of his life. The chairmen, known as such in London, were licensed and operated under a monopoly granted by King Charles I, with each chair assigned a number. By 1634, London had chairs available for hire, and by the mid-17th century, they were a common mode of transportation. The sedan chair could pass in streets too narrow for a carriage, alleviating the crush of coaches that plagued the city. In Bath, a popular spa town, visitors taking the waters would be conveyed in a chair enclosed in baize curtains, especially if they had taken a heated bath and were going straight to bed to sweat. The curtains kept off a possibly fatal draught, a medical necessity in an era before central heating. The neoclassical sedan chair made for Queen Charlotte, Queen Consort from 1761 to 1818, remains at Buckingham Palace, a testament to the elegance of the design. The chairmen moved at a good clip, and in Bath, they had the right-of-way, with pedestrians flattening themselves against walls or railings as the chairmen hustled through. There were often disastrous accidents, upset chairs, and broken glass-paned windows, but the system worked. In 1738, a fare system was established for Scottish sedans, and the regulations covering chairmen in Bath were reminiscent of the modern Taxi Commission's rules. A trip within a city cost six pence and a day's rental was four shillings. A sedan was even used as an ambulance in Scotland's Royal Infirmary. By the early 19th century, the public sedan chair began to fall out of use in Great Britain, perhaps because streets were better paved or because of the rise of the more comfortable, companionable, and affordable hackney carriage. In Glasgow, the decline of the sedan chair is illustrated by licensing records which show twenty-seven sedan chairs in 1800, eighteen in 1817, and ten in 1828. During that same period, the number of registered hackney carriages in Glasgow rose to one hundred and fifty. The sedan chair was not just a vehicle; it was a symbol of a bygone era, a time when the city was navigated by human muscle and the rich could afford to be carried above the filth of the street.

The Mountain Path

In the rugged terrain of the Korean peninsula and the steep slopes of the Huangshan Mountains in China, the litter was not a luxury but a necessity, a solution to the lack of paved roads and the unsuitability of wheeled vehicles. In Korea, royalty and aristocrats were carried in wooden litters called gama, which were primarily used by royalty and government officials. There were six types of gama, each assigned to different government official rankings, and they were preferred over wheeled vehicles due to the difficulties posed by the mountainous terrain. In traditional weddings, the bride and groom were carried to the ceremony in separate gamas, a custom that goes back to the times of the Joseon Dynasty, when the gamas were also used for celebrations of passing government exams and funerals. In China, the chair with perhaps the greatest importance was the bridal chair, a traditional bride carried to her wedding ceremony by a shoulder carriage, usually hired. These were lacquered in an auspicious shade of red, richly ornamented, and gilded, and were equipped with red silk curtains to screen the bride from onlookers. In the Huangshan Mountains of Anhui province, a chair borne on the back of a porter, almost identical to the silla, is still used for ferrying older tourists and visitors up and down the mountain paths. The silla, a similar but simpler palanquin used in Latin America, consisted of a simple wooden chair with an attached tumpline, affixed to the back of a single porter, with the tumpline supported by his head. The occupant thus faced backwards during travel, a style probably due to the steep terrain and rough or narrow roads unsuitable to European-style sedan chairs. Travellers by silla usually employed a number of porters, who would alternate carrying the occupant. The porters were known as silleros, cargueros, or silleteros, sometimes translated as saddle-men. In the Kingdom of Kongo, human portage was the only mode of transportation, and litter transporters could move at speeds as fast as post horses at the gallop. The litter was not just a vehicle; it was a lifeline, a way to navigate the impossible terrain of the world's most challenging landscapes.

The Sacred and The Royal

Across the globe, the litter transcended its function as a mere vehicle to become a sacred object, a symbol of divine authority, and a centerpiece of royal ceremony. In Thailand, the royalty were carried in wooden litters called wo, literally Royal Sedan, which were elaborately decorated with gold leaf and stained glass. These litters were used for large ceremonies and are now exhibited in the Bangkok National Museum. In the Philippines, pre-colonial litters were a way of transportation for the elite, with Rajahs, Lakans, Datus, and sovereign princes using a Sankayan or Sakayan, a wooden or bamboo throne with elaborate and intricate carvings carried by their servants. Princesses who were sequestered from the world were called Binukot or Binocot, set apart, and were forbidden to walk on the ground or be exposed to the general populace. When they needed to go anywhere, they were veiled and carried in a hammock or a basket-like litter similar to a bird's nest carried by their slaves. In the Kingdom of Kongo, litters of varying types known as tipoye were used from at least the 15th century until the 19th century as a mode of transportation for the elites. Seat-style litters with a single pole along the back of the chair carried by two men, usually slaves, were topped with an umbrella. Lounge-style litters in the shape of a bed were used to move one to two people with a porter at each corner. In Southern Ghana, the Akan and the Ga-Dangme carry their chiefs and kings in palanquins when they appear in their state durbars. These palanquins may be seen as substitutes of a state coach in Europe or a horse used in Northern Ghana. The chiefs of the Ga use also figurative palanquins which are built after a chief's family symbol or totem. In traditional Javanese society, the generic palanquin or joli was a wicker chair with a canopy, attached to two poles, and borne on men's shoulders, and was available for hire to any paying customer. The palanquin of a Javanese king, prince, lord, or other noble was known as a jempana, a more throne-like version called a pangkem. It was always part of a large military procession, with a yellow square canopy, the Javanese color for royalty. The ceremonial parasol was held above the palanquin, which was carried by a bearer behind and flanked by the most loyal bodyguards, usually about 12 men, with pikes, sabres, lances, muskets, keris, and a variety of disguised blades. In Hindu culture in Bali today, the tradition of using palanquins for auspicious statues, weapons, or heirlooms continues, for funerals especially, and in more elaborate rituals, a palanquin is used to bear the body, and is subsequently cremated along with the departed. The litter was not just a vehicle; it was a vessel of the divine, a symbol of power, and a centerpiece of the most sacred ceremonies of the world.