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Mexico
The name Mexico originates from the Nahuatl word Mexica, referring to the heartland of the Aztec Empire in the Valley of Mexico, yet the very origin of the toponym remains a subject of historical debate. Human presence in this region stretches back to at least 8,000 BC, with the earliest stone tools discovered in the Valley of Mexico dating to 10,000 years ago. This land became the cradle of Mesoamerican civilization, where the domestication of maize, tomatoes, and beans created an agricultural surplus that allowed hunter-gatherers to transition into sedentary villages by 5000 BC. The Olmec culture, flourishing on the Gulf Coast from 1500 BC, developed the first complex society in the region, spreading cultural traits that influenced all subsequent civilizations. The Maya and Zapotec peoples followed, creating the first true writing systems in Mesoamerica and establishing sophisticated centers of power. Teotihuacan rose to become the sixth largest city in the world at its peak, housing over 150,000 people and constructing massive pyramidal structures that still stand today. The Aztec Empire, centered in Tenochtitlan, would eventually dominate the region, creating a vast political and economic network that stretched from central Mexico to Guatemala before the arrival of the Spanish.
Silver, Conquest, And The Crown
The Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire began in 1519 when Hernán Cortés founded Veracruz, leading to the capture of Tenochtitlan in 1521 and the establishment of New Spain. This colonial era lasted for three centuries, transforming Mexico into a jewel of the Spanish Empire through the discovery of massive silver deposits in the north. The Kingdom of New Spain was built on two pillars: the State and the Church, both under the authority of the Spanish crown, which granted sweeping powers to the monarchy in 1493 to spread Christianity. The Viceroyalty of New Spain was created in 1535, with Mexico City serving as the capital and the seat of the highest official of the State. The Diocese of Mexico was established in 1530 and elevated to an Archdiocese in 1546, making the Catholic faith the only permitted religion. The economy was fueled by silver mining and the position of Mexico as a hub between Europe and Asia, creating one of the largest multiracial populations in the world. Only two ports, Veracruz and Acapulco, were open to foreign trade to protect the Crown's monopoly, while pirate attacks like the 1663 Sack of Campeche and the 1683 Attack on Veracruz threatened the coastal defenses. The volatility of the urban poor in Mexico City erupted in the 1692 riot over the price of maize, which escalated into a full-scale attack on the viceregal palace and the archbishop's residence.
The Cry Of Dolores And The Empire
Common questions
What is the origin of the name Mexico?
The name Mexico originates from the Nahuatl word Mexica, referring to the heartland of the Aztec Empire in the Valley of Mexico. The very origin of the toponym remains a subject of historical debate.
When did the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire begin and end?
The Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire began in 1519 when Hernán Cortés founded Veracruz. The conquest concluded with the capture of Tenochtitlan in 1521 and the establishment of New Spain.
Who declared the Cry of Dolores and when did it occur?
Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, a secular priest, declared against bad government in Dolores, Guanajuato, on the 16th of September 1810. This event known as the Cry of Dolores marks the beginning of Mexico's War of Independence.
What were the results of the Mexican Revolution regarding the Constitution of 1917?
The Mexican Revolution killed 900,000 out of Mexico's 15 million population and resulted in the winners meeting at a constitutional convention to draft the Constitution of 1917. This constitution empowered the government to expropriate resources and gave rights to labor.
Who became the first woman to lead Mexico and when was she sworn in?
Claudia Sheinbaum, AMLO's successor, won the 2024 presidential election in a landslide and became the first woman to lead Mexico. She was sworn in on the 1st of October 2024.
What is Mexico's ranking in global biodiversity and which species groups does it lead?
Mexico ranks fourth in the world in biodiversity and is one of the 17 megadiverse countries. It ranks first in biodiversity in reptiles with 707 known species and second in mammals with 438 species.
Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, a secular priest, declared against bad government in Dolores, Guanajuato, on the 16th of September 1810, an event known as the Cry of Dolores that marks the beginning of Mexico's War of Independence. The upheaval in the Empire was fueled by Napoleon's invasion of Spain in 1808, and Hidalgo and some of his soldiers were executed by firing squad in 1811. The first 35 years after independence were marked by instability, with the state transitioning from a transient monarchy to a fragile federated republic. Agustín de Iturbide, a former Royal Army General, became regent and was declared Emperor Agustín I when no European royal house desired the position, but his rule was short-lived, ending in 1823 when he was overthrown by army officers. The First Mexican Republic was established in 1824, with Guadalupe Victoria becoming the first president, followed by Vicente Guerrero, who abolished slavery in 1829 before being judicially murdered by his Conservative vice president, Anastasio Bustamante. Antonio López de Santa Anna emerged as a national hero during the conflicts with France and the Pastry War of 1838, 39, dominating politics for the next 25 years. The largest blow to Mexico was the US invasion in 1846 during the Mexican, American War, which resulted in the loss of much of its northern territory sealed in the 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo.
Order, Progress, And The Revolution
The 35-year rule of Liberal General Porfirio Díaz from 1876 to 1911 allowed Mexico to modernize in a period described as one of order and progress, characterized by economic stability, foreign investment, and the expansion of the rail network. Díaz ruled with a group of advisors known as the Científicos, who rejected theology and idealism in favor of scientific methods applied towards development. The regime led a protracted conflict against the Yaqui people, culminating in their forced relocation to Yucatán and Oaxaca. The fraudulent 1910 election set off a frenzy of activity, including the unlikely candidacy of Francisco I. Madero, who won a surprising amount of support before Díaz changed his mind and ran in the election, jailing Madero. The Mexican Revolution was a decade-long transformational conflict that began with uprisings against Díaz, leading to his resignation in May 1911 and the democratic election of Madero in fall 1911. A military coup in February 1913 overthrew Madero's government with the support of the US, resulting in Madero's murder by agents of Federal Army General Victoriano Huerta. The revolution killed 900,000 out of Mexico's 15 million population, and the winners met at a constitutional convention to draft the Constitution of 1917, which empowered the government to expropriate resources and gave rights to labor.
The Party That Ruled A Century
The post-revolutionary period from 1920 to 1946 was characterized by revolutionary generals serving as presidents, including Álvaro Obregón, Plutarco Elías Calles, Lázaro Cárdenas, and Manuel Ávila Camacho. The government sought to bring order and end military intervention in politics, creating organizations of interest groups that were incorporated as sectors of the single party that dominated politics from its founding in 1929. Plutarco Elías Calles founded the Institutional Revolutionary Party, which held uninterrupted power in Mexico from 1929 to 2000, despite not holding the presidency himself during the period known as the Maximato. Lázaro Cárdenas expelled Calles and implemented economic and social reforms, including the Mexican oil expropriation in 1938, which nationalized the Mexican Eagle Petroleum Company and created the state-owned Pemex. The Mexican Miracle, a program of development known from 1946, was characterized by industrialization, urbanization, and increased inequality between urban and rural areas. The Green Revolution began in the Yaqui Valley in the middle of the 20th century, and Mexico hosted the 1968 Summer Olympics, which were marred by the Tlatelolco Massacre that killed 300 to 800 protesters.
The Crack In The Wall And The New Century
In 1988, electoral fraud resulted in Carlos Salinas de Gortari winning the election by the narrowest percentage ever, sparking protests in Mexico City over the stolen election. Salinas embarked on a program of neoliberal reforms that culminated in the North American Free Trade Agreement on the 1st of January 1994, the same day the Zapatista Army of National Liberation began an armed rebellion in Chiapas. The PRI lost the 2000 presidential election to Vicente Fox of the opposing conservative National Action Party, ending 71 years of rule. The 2006 presidential election saw Felipe Calderón declared the winner with a narrow margin of 0.6% over Andrés Manuel López Obrador, who contested the election and pledged to create an alternative government. López Obrador won the 2018 election with over 50% and founded the new political party MORENA, which won a majority in the Congress chambers. Claudia Sheinbaum, AMLO's successor, won the 2024 presidential election in a landslide and became the first woman to lead Mexico, sworn in on the 1st of October 2024. The 21st century has seen Mexico contend with high crime rates, bureaucratic corruption, and a stagnant economy, with the drug war ongoing since 2006 leaving over 120,000 dead and perhaps another 37,000 missing.
Biodiversity And The Borderlands
Mexico ranks fourth in the world in biodiversity and is one of the 17 megadiverse countries, home to 10 to 12% of the world's biodiversity. It ranks first in biodiversity in reptiles with 707 known species, second in mammals with 438 species, and fourth in amphibians with 290 species. The country has nine distinct regions, including the Sierra Madre Oriental and Sierra Madre Occidental, which are extensions of the Rocky Mountains. The Yucatán peninsula contains the Chicxulub crater, the scientific consensus is that the impactor was responsible for the Cretaceous, Paleogene extinction event. The climate varies from the dry and desertic climates of the northern half to the warm sub-humid climate of the southern region. Mexico has 34 biosphere reserves, 67 national parks, and 4 natural monuments, yet it had the second fastest rate of deforestation in the world in 2002, second only to Brazil. The country is home to a vast array of native culinary ingredients, including maize, tomatoes, beans, chocolate, vanilla, and a great variety of chiles, and is the second-largest exporter of electronics to the US.
The Economy Of Contrasts
As of April 2025, Mexico has the 13th largest economy by purchasing power parity, with a GDP per capita of US$26,000, and the sixth largest electronics industry after China, the US, Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan. The country produces the most automobiles of any North American nation, with the Big Three operating in Mexico since the 1930s and Volkswagen and Nissan building their plants in the 1960s. Remittances from Mexican citizens working in the US are significant, topping other sources of foreign income, with over $33 billion flowing via a US government banking program. Despite this, much of Mexico's population lives in poverty, with the poverty rate decreasing from 42% to 36% between 2018 and 2022, though extreme poverty rose by 0.1%. The country has the second-highest degree of inequality between the extremely poor and rich among OECD countries, with the bottom ten percent disposing of 1.4% of the country's resources. The telecommunications industry is mostly dominated by Telmex, and the energy sector is managed by state-owned companies like Pemex and the Federal Commission of Electricity. Mexico has committed to reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 35% by 2030, with an increased target of 40% conditional upon external support, and aims to cut black carbon emissions by 51% unconditionally.