Kingdom of Hungary (1301–1526)
Andrew III died on the 14th of January 1301. His death created a power vacuum that allowed about a dozen lords to seize control of royal castles and counties. Matthew III Csák ruled over fourteen counties in lands now forming Slovakia while Ladislaus Kán administered Transylvania. Ugrin Csák controlled large territories between the rivers Száva and Dráva. In Croatia, viceroy Paul Šubić minted his own coin and was called the uncrowned king of the Croats by contemporary historians.
Charles I of Anjou arrived at Esztergom shortly after Andrew's death to claim the throne. Most secular lords opposed him and proposed the throne to King Wenceslaus II of Bohemia's son instead. The young Wenceslaus renounced his claim in favor of Otto III, Duke of Bavaria in 1305. A papal legate persuaded all the lords to accept Charles of Anjou's rule in 1310 but most territories remained out of royal control.
Charles launched expeditions against the great lords with assistance from prelates and lesser nobles. He defeated them one by one taking advantage of their lack of unity. His first victory came at the battle of Rozgony in present-day Rozhanovce, Slovakia in 1312. The most powerful lord Matthew Csák preserved his autonomy until his death in 1321. The Babonić and Šubić families were only subjugated in 1323.
Most profits from the mines were transferred to Italian and South German merchants. The value of imported fine textiles and other goods always exceeded the price of cattle and wine exported from the kingdom. Charles ordered the minting of stable golden coins modeled on the florin of Florence. His ban on trading with uncoined gold produced a shortage in the European market that lasted until his death in 1342.
Following this, the Romanian-led Voivodeship of Maramureș was established in 1343. Charles's widow Elisabeth of Poland transported enormous quantities of gold to Italy to promote the claim of their younger son Andrew to the Kingdom of Naples. Andrew who was Queen Joanna I of Naples's consort was assassinated in 1345. Louis I of Hungary accused the queen of his murder and led two campaigns against her in 1347 and 1350.
The Ottoman Empire's expansion reached the southern frontiers of Hungary in 1390 when Stefan Lazarević of Serbia accepted the sultan's suzerainty. Sigismund decided to organize a crusade against the Ottomans but the crusaders were routed at the battle of Nicopolis in 1396. A great army consisting mainly of French knights had assembled for this campaign.
John Hunyadi directed the fight against the Ottomans during the next decades. He made several raids against the empire starting from 1441.
During his long campaign of 1443-1444 Hungarian forces penetrated as far as Sofia within the Ottoman Empire. The Holy See organized a new crusade but the Ottomans annihilated Christian forces at the Battle of Varna in 1444 where Władysław was killed.
Hunyadi organized the defense of Belgrade with assistance from Franciscan preacher John of Capistrano. They mobilized 25,000 to 30,000 commoners and cut the Ottomans' supply lines. This forced them to withdraw on the 22nd of July 1456. Hunyadi died in an epidemic two weeks after the victory. His elder son Ladislaus was ordered by Ulrich of Celje to hand over all royal castles held by his father.
A Diet convoked in 1458 elected Matthias Hunyadi king. The young monarch removed powerful figures like Ladislaus Garay from office and concluded a peace treaty with Emperor Frederick III in 1464. King Matthias introduced far-reaching fiscal and military reforms that generated about 650,000 golden florins yearly income. More than 60 percent of revenues derived from an extraordinary tax often collected without Diet consent.
Increased royal revenues enabled Matthias to maintain a standing army known as the Black
Army. It consisted mainly of Czech German and Hungarian mercenaries making it one of the first professional military forces in Europe. Matthias strengthened the network of fortresses along the southern frontier but did not pursue his father's offensive anti-Ottoman policy. Instead he launched attacks on Bohemia Poland and Austria to forge alliances strong enough to expel the Ottomans from Europe.
His court became unquestionably among the most brilliant in Europe according to Miklós Molnár. The Bibliotheca Corviniana library contained 2,000 manuscripts making it the second greatest collection in size among contemporary book collections. Matthias was the first monarch north of the Alps to introduce Italian Renaissance style in his realms. He had royal palaces at Buda and Visegrád rebuilt under Italian architects after 1479.
Matthias died in 1490 leaving behind reforms that did not survive turbulent decades. An oligarchy of quarrelsome magnates gained control of Hungary by procuring the accession of Vladislaus II. This king was known as King Dobže meaning all right because he accepted every petition without question. Vladislaus donated most royal estates régales and royalties to the nobility to stabilize his reign.
The noble estate of parliament succeeded in reducing tax burden by 70-80 percent at expense of
defense ability. In 1492 the Diet limited serfs freedom of movement and expanded their obligations while peasants became prosperous due to cattle export to West. Rural discontent boiled over in 1514 when well armed peasants rose up under György Dózsa a borderguard captain. They attacked estates across Hungary preparing for a crusade against Turks.
United by common threat magnates and lesser nobles crushed rebels brutally executing Dózsa and other leaders. The Diet of 1514 passed laws condemning serfs to eternal bondage and increasing work obligations. Corporal punishment became widespread with one noble branding his serfs like livestock. Legal scholar István Werbőczy included new laws in Tripartitum of 1514 which made up spirit of Hungary's legal corpus until revolution of 1848.
Following fall of Belgrade Louis II and wife Mary of Habsburg tried to manage anti-magnate putsch but failed. In August 1526 Ottomans under Suleiman appeared in southern Hungary marching nearly 100,000 Turkish-Islamic troops into heartland. Hungarian army numbering around 26,000 met Turks at Mohács though they were well equipped and trained. They lacked good military leader while reinforcements from Croatia and Transylvania did not arrive in time.
They were utterly defeated with up to 20,000 killed on
field. Louis himself died when he fell from horse into bog. After Louis death rival factions elected two kings John Zápolya and Ferdinand of Habsburg simultaneously. Each claimed sovereignty over entire country but lacked sufficient forces to eliminate rival. Zápolya recognized by Sultan Suleiman was supported mostly by lesser nobles opposed to foreign kings.
Zápolya realm became Ottoman vassal in 1529 when he swore fealty to Suleiman. Ferdinand drew support from magnates in western Hungary hoping to convince brother Holy Roman Emperor Charles V to expel Turks. Agreement known as Treaty of Nagyvárad arranged by George Martinuzzi would have made Ferdinand sole monarch upon childless Zápolya death. Agreement failed when Zápolya married and fathered son John Sigismund before his death in 1540. Violence erupted allowing Turks to seize Buda and partition country in 1541.
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Common questions
When did Andrew III die and what happened immediately after his death?
Andrew III died on the 14th of January 1301. His death created a power vacuum that allowed about a dozen lords to seize control of royal castles and counties.
Who was Charles I of Anjou and when did he secure the throne of Hungary?
Charles I of Anjou arrived at Esztergom shortly after Andrew's death to claim the throne. A papal legate persuaded all the lords to accept Charles of Anjou's rule in 1310 but most territories remained out of royal control until later victories.
What were the economic reforms implemented by Charles I of Anjou during his reign?
Charles ordered the minting of stable golden coins modeled on the florin of Florence. His ban on trading with uncoined gold produced a shortage in the European market that lasted until his death in 1342.
How did John Hunyadi defend Belgrade from the Ottoman Empire in 1456?
Hunyadi organized the defense of Belgrade with assistance from Franciscan preacher John of Capistrano. They mobilized 25,000 to 30,000 commoners and cut the Ottomans' supply lines which forced them to withdraw on the 22nd of July 1456.
Why is Matthias Hunyadi known for introducing Italian Renaissance style to Hungary?
Matthias was the first monarch north of the Alps to introduce Italian Renaissance style in his realms. He had royal palaces at Buda and Visegrád rebuilt under Italian architects after 1479.
What occurred at the Battle of Mohács in August 1526 regarding Louis II of Hungary?
Hungarian army numbering around 26,000 met Turks at Mohács though they were well equipped and trained but lacked good military leader while reinforcements from Croatia and Transylvania did not arrive in time. Louis himself died when he fell from horse into bog during the defeat.