King of the Romans
The royal throne of Charlemagne in Aachen Cathedral stands silent today, but it once echoed with the Latin phrase Rex Francorum. During the Ottonian period, German kings ruled as Kings of the Franks rather than Romans. This title reflected their claim to inherit the legacy of ancient Rome through the Frankish conquests. Henry II began his reign in 1002 and marked a turning point in how rulers styled themselves. By the late Salian period, the designation shifted to King of the Romans or Rex Romanorum. Pope Gregory VII later used the derogatory term Teutonicorum Rex to imply that authority was merely local. The title evolved again during the Modern Period when König in Germanien came into use. Modern German historiography eventually established the term Roman-German King to differentiate it from classical emperors.
Candidates for the kingship were initially heads of Germanic stem duchies who held power across fragmented territories. Originally all noblemen present could vote by unanimous acclamation at imperial gatherings. Later a franchise was granted to only the most eminent bishops and noblemen. The Golden Bull of 1356 issued by Emperor Charles IV restricted voting rights to seven Prince-electors. These electors included the Prince-Archbishops of Mainz, Trier and Cologne alongside the King of Bohemia. The Count Palatine of the Rhine, the Saxon duke, and the Margrave of Brandenburg also held this privilege. Elections often took place in the imperial city of Frankfurt after 1147 as recorded in the Schwabenspiegel code. This custom remained effective as constitutional law until the Empire's dissolution in 1806.
After his election, the new king would be crowned as King of the Romans usually at Charlemagne's throne in Aachen Cathedral. Widukind of Corvey described Otto's coronation in 936 within his Res gestae saxonicae text. Kings received the Imperial Crown from at least 1024 during the coronation of Conrad II. Philip of Swabia was crowned Rex Romanorum at Mainz Cathedral in 1198 before another ceremony occurred in Aachen. At some time after the ceremony, the king would cross the Alps to receive coronation in Pavia or Milan with the Iron Crown of Lombardy. Finally he would travel to Rome and be crowned Emperor by the Pope. Because it was rarely possible for the elected King to proceed immediately to Rome, several years might elapse between election and coronation. Some Kings never completed the journey to Rome at all due to hostile relations with the Pope.
Henry IV adopted Romanorum Rex as a title to emphasize his sacred entitlement to be crowned Emperor by the Pope. Pope Gregory VII insisted on using the derogatory term Teutonicorum Rex to imply that Henry's authority was merely local. The struggle between papal authority and imperial power culminated in the fierce Investiture Controversy. After the Salian heir apparent Henry IV had been elected to rule the Empire in 1056, he became a six-year-old minor. Henry continued to regularly use the title Romanorum Rex until he finally was crowned Emperor by Antipope Clement III in 1084. Charles intended to strengthen the legal status of the Rex Romanorum beyond Papal approbation following this conflict. Consequently among his successors only Sigismund and Frederick III were still crowned Emperors in Rome.
The title Romanorum Rex ceased to be used for ruling kings after 1508 when the Pope permitted King Maximilian I to use Electus Romanorum Imperator. This change occurred after he failed in a good-faith attempt to journey to Rome. At this time Maximilian also took the new title King in Germania or Germaniae rex though it was never used as a primary title. Beginning with Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor, rulers no longer sought the Imperial coronation by the Pope. They styled themselves Emperors without Papal approval taking the title as soon as they were crowned in Germany. If crowned in their predecessor's lifetime, they assumed the title upon the death of a sitting Emperor. The last king to receive the Imperial Crown at the hands of Pope Clement VII was Charles V in Bologna during 1530.
The Holy Roman Empire was an elective monarchy where no person had an automatic legal right to succession simply because he was related to the current Emperor. However the Emperor could often have a relative elected to succeed him after his death. This elected heir apparent bore the title King of the Romans and was usually a son. During the Middle Ages a junior King of the Romans was normally chosen only when the senior ruler bore the title of Emperor. Only on one occasion between 1147 and 1150 was there both a ruling King of the Romans and a King of the Romans as heir. Henry Berengar served as the son and heir of King Conrad III during that unique period. The practice continued from the 16th century onwards as rulers assumed the title Emperor elect without Imperial coronation by the Pope.
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Common questions
What title did German kings use during the Ottonian period?
During the Ottonian period, German kings ruled as Kings of the Franks rather than Romans. This title reflected their claim to inherit the legacy of ancient Rome through the Frankish conquests.
When was the Golden Bull of 1356 issued and what did it change about voting rights?
The Golden Bull of 1356 was issued by Emperor Charles IV in the year 1356. It restricted voting rights to seven Prince-electors including the Prince-Archbishops of Mainz, Trier and Cologne alongside the King of Bohemia.
Where were most King of the Romans crowned after election?
Most new kings were crowned at Charlemagne's throne in Aachen Cathedral after their election. Philip of Swabia was an exception who received his coronation at Mainz Cathedral in 1198 before another ceremony occurred in Aachen.
Why did Henry IV adopt the title Romanorum Rex in 1056?
Henry IV adopted Romanorum Rex as a title to emphasize his sacred entitlement to be crowned Emperor by the Pope. He continued to regularly use the title until he finally was crowned Emperor by Antipope Clement III on the 2nd of May 1084.
What happened to the title Romanorum Rex after 1508 when Maximilian I became king?
The title Romanorum Rex ceased to be used for ruling kings after 1508 when the Pope permitted King Maximilian I to use Electus Romanorum Imperator. This change occurred after he failed in a good-faith attempt to journey to Rome.
Who was the last king to receive the Imperial Crown from Pope Clement VII and when did this occur?
Charles V was the last king to receive the Imperial Crown at the hands of Pope Clement VII in Bologna during 1530. The Holy Roman Empire dissolved in 1806 ending the constitutional law that governed these elections.