January 28 incident
On the 18th of January 1932, five Japanese Nichiren Buddhist monks chanting the daimoku on an alms round were beaten near Shanghai's Sanyou Factory by agitated Chinese civilians. Two were seriously injured, and one died during that afternoon. Over the next few hours, a Japanese group burnt down the factory, killing two Chinese in the fire. Later, during the International Military Tribunal for the Far East and in his postwar memoirs, Tanaka Ryukichi claimed that he had paid the Chinese mob to beat the Buddhist monks. This specific incident triggered a massive upsurge of anti-Japanese and anti-imperialist protests in the city and its concessions. Chinese residents of Shanghai marched onto the streets and called for a boycott of Japanese-made goods. One policeman was killed and several more hurt when they arrived to quell the disorder. On the 9th of January, the Min-kuo Jih-pao newspaper described a failed assassination attempt on Emperor Hirohito as unfortunate. This editorial provoked outrage among the Japanese, who perceived it as an affront to their national honor. Major Tanaka Ryukichi of the Kwantung Army conspired to turn combustibles in Shanghai into diversion of major proportions. His goal was to escalate into a military intervention by the Japanese navy to divert global attention from colleagues' actions in north Manchuria.
By the 27th of January 1932, the Japanese military had concentrated some 30 ships, a number of seaplanes, and nearly 2,000 troops around the shoreline of Shanghai. The military's justification was that it had to defend its citizens and their property. Hongkou district, where most of the Japanese citizens resided, had been assigned as the Japanese Defense Sector as part of the International Defense Scheme enacted by foreign powers the year prior. Shortly before midnight on January 28, plainclothes Chinese troops infiltrated the Hongkou district and fired upon Japanese sailors leaving their headquarters. Three thousand Japanese sailors were mobilized in response, attacking the neighboring district of Zhabei. They assumed control of the de facto Japanese settlement in Hongkou. The 19th Route Army put up fierce resistance despite expectations they would leave after being paid. On the same day, the Chinese Air Force dispatched nine planes to the Hongqiao Aerodrome. The first aerial battle between Chinese and Japanese aircraft occurred on that day, although neither side suffered losses. The conflict eventually spread outwards towards Wusong and Jiangwan. Commercial and residential districts of the city were set on fire during bombardments on February 20. The Japanese took the village of Jiangwan on February 28 after a week of fierce fighting characterized by stubborn resistance from troops mainly from Guangdong.
Because Shanghai was a metropolitan city with many foreign interests invested in it, other countries such as the United States, the United Kingdom and France attempted to negotiate a ceasefire. Initially a ceasefire was brokered between the two nations, but it was subsequently broken. Both sides claimed the other had reopened fire upon their troops. On February 12, American, British and French representatives brokered a half-day cease fire for humanitarian relief to civilians caught in the crossfire. The League of Nations passed a resolution demanding a ceasefire on March 4, though sporadic fighting persisted. On March 6, the Chinese unilaterally agreed to stop fighting, although the Japanese rejected the ceasefire. Representatives from the League of Nations arrived at Shanghai on March 14 to broker a negotiation with the Japanese. While negotiations were going on, intermittent fighting continued in both outlying areas and the city itself. A truce was finally reached on May 5, calling for Japanese military withdrawal and an end to Chinese boycotts of Japanese products. The agreement made Shanghai a demilitarized zone and forbade China to garrison troops in areas surrounding Shanghai, Suzhou, and Kunshan. It allowed the presence of a few Japanese units in the city while China kept only a small police force within the city.
After the ceasefire was brokered, the 19th Army was reassigned by Chiang Kai-shek to suppress the Chinese Communist insurrection in Fujian. After winning some battles against the Communists, a peace agreement was negotiated. On November 22, the leadership of the 19th Route Army revolted against the Kuomintang government. They established the Fujian People's Government, independent of the Republic of China. This new government was not supported by all elements of the Communists and was quickly crushed by Chiang's armies in January 1934. The leaders of the 19th Route Army escaped to Hong Kong, and the rest of the army was disbanded and reassigned to other units of the National Revolutionary Army. The Commercial Press and the Oriental Library were destroyed during the fighting. Chiang Kai-shek decided to temporarily relocate the capital from Nanjing to Luoyang on January 30 as an emergency measure. He feared that Nanjing's proximity to Shanghai could make it a target. The nearby 19th R.A. units moved closer to the Little Tokyo of the International Settlement as threats and rumors of Japanese naval landing forces' action echoed in Shanghai.
The episode helped undermine civilian rule in Tokyo; Prime Minister Inukai Tsuyoshi was assassinated on the 15th of May 1932. Yoshinori Shirakawa, the commander of the Shanghai Expeditionary Army and joint leader of the Japanese forces, was severely wounded by Korean nationalist Yoon Bong-Gil during a birthday celebration for Emperor Hirohito held at Shanghai's Hongkou Park. He died of his injuries on May 26. The number of Japanese troops was increased to nearly 18,000 with the arrival of the 9th Infantry Division and the IJA 24th Mixed Brigade. They were supported by a number of warships and airplanes. The Japanese issued another ultimatum demanding that the Chinese Army retreat 20 km from the border of the Shanghai concessions. This demand was promptly rejected and only intensified fighting in Hongkou. The Japanese were unable to take the city by the middle of February. Following their encirclement, Chinese troops abandoned Shanghai and the surrounding area. On March 3, the Japanese Commander gave the order to stop the fighting after defenders launched a desperate counterattack but were unable to dislodge them.
It is seen as the first example of a modern war waged in a large city between two heavily equipped armies. It served as a preview of what was to come during the Second World War. The foreign concessions remained largely untouched by the conflict, and it was often the case that those in the Shanghai International Settlement would watch the war from the banks of Suzhou Creek. They could even visit the battle lines by virtue of their extraterritoriality. Ruins of the Commercial Press, a large publishing firm, stood as evidence of the destruction. A black and white photo captured the bombed-out four story office building. The episode helped undermine civilian rule in Tokyo and contributed to the rise of militarism within Japan. Chiang Kai-shek sent the 5th Army, including the 87th and 88th divisions, into Shanghai on February 14. The Chinese defensive positions deteriorated rapidly without naval and armored support, although the number of defenders was nearly five divisions. The Japanese forces had a single division alongside the IJA 24th Mixed brigade and the Shanghai Naval Landing Force, numbering around 18,000 troops.
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Common questions
What happened on the 18th of January 1932 in Shanghai?
Five Japanese Nichiren Buddhist monks were beaten by Chinese civilians near Sanyou Factory, resulting in one death and two serious injuries. A Japanese group subsequently burned down the factory, killing two Chinese people in the fire.
When did the January 28 incident begin in Shanghai?
The conflict began shortly before midnight on January 28 when plainclothes Chinese troops infiltrated Hongkou district and fired upon Japanese sailors. This action triggered a mobilization of three thousand Japanese sailors who attacked the neighboring district of Zhabei.
Who was assassinated on the 15th of May 1932 following the January 28 incident?
Prime Minister Inukai Tsuyoshi was assassinated on the 15th of May 1932 as the episode undermined civilian rule in Tokyo. Yoshinori Shirakawa died of wounds sustained from an attack by Yoon Bong-Gil on May 26 during a celebration for Emperor Hirohito.
Where did the fighting occur during the January 28 incident?
Fighting spread from Hongkou district to Zhabei, Wusong, and Jiangwan while commercial and residential districts were set on fire during bombardments on February 20. The foreign concessions remained largely untouched with observers watching from the banks of Suzhou Creek.
Why did Major Tanaka Ryukichi conspire to escalate tensions in Shanghai?
Major Tanaka Ryukichi aimed to create a diversion of major proportions to justify military intervention by the Japanese navy. His goal was to divert global attention from actions taken by colleagues in north Manchuria.