Jaffa

• 1. Ancient Origins And Mythology

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  The city of Jaffa sits atop a naturally elevated outcrop on the Mediterranean coastline, where excavations indicate settlement as early as the Early Bronze Age I period. This 4th millennium BCE era left behind numerous potsherds that hint at a community deeply embedded in ancient trade routes between Egypt and Byblos. Scholars hypothesize that during the Early Bronze Age III, roughly 2850 to 2400 BCE, this location served as a natural harbor for developing commerce. The scarcity of material from this earliest period is likely due to later occupational layers burying the initial remains deep underground. While no direct archaeological evidence confirms the full extent of these first settlements, the site formed part of a broader pattern of villages and fortresses established along the central coastal plain. Excavations in Areas B through D on the northern slope revealed an earthen rampart that once supported a mudbrick superstructure which has not survived the millennia. Additional fortification elements, including traces of a gate dated to the 17th or 16th centuries BCE, were uncovered in Area A on the eastern slope. These features are characteristic of Middle Bronze Age sites throughout the Levant region. The town was mentioned in Egyptian sources and the Amarna letters under the name Yapu. Mythology says it is named for Yafet, one of the sons of Noah who built it after the Flood. A 16th-century French pilgrim named Denis Possot recorded that Jaffe was the port of the Holy Land, formerly called Joppe, constructed by Japhet, son of Noah. Another pilgrim, Sir Richard of Guylforde, wrote that this city was one of the first founded by Japhet, Noah's son. The Hellenist tradition links the name to Iopeia, or Cassiopeia, mother of Andromeda. An outcropping of rocks near the harbor is reputed to be where Andromeda was rescued by Perseus. Pliny the Elder associated the name with Iopa, daughter of Aeolus, god of the wind.

• 2. Imperial Conquests And Religious Shifts

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  As late as the 15th century BCE, Jaffa came under the imperial control of Egypt's New Kingdom. It is listed among cities conquered by Thutmose III during campaigns generally dated to the late 16th through early 15th centuries BCE. Jaffa likely served as a fortified harbor base used to monitor movement along the coast. The site is mentioned in Papyrus Harris 500, which contains a partially preserved tale known as The Taking of Joppa. This story recounts a Canaanite revolt against Egyptian rule where rebel leader left Jaffa and encountered the Egyptian general Djehuty. Djehuty tricked remaining rebels by hiding 200 soldiers in sacks transported into the city under the guise of goods. Once inside, the soldiers emerged and captured Jaffa apparently without a fight. This tale bears a striking resemblance to the later Greek story of the Trojan Horse, predating it by at least two centuries. In the Hebrew Bible, Jaffa is depicted as the northernmost Philistine city bordering Israelite territories of the Tribe of Dan. The Israelites did not manage to take Jaffa from the Philistines. Jaffa is mentioned four times in the Hebrew Bible as a port-of-entry for cedars of Lebanon for Solomon's Temple. It also appears as the place whence the prophet Jonah embarked for Tarshish. In the late 8th century BCE, Sennacherib, king of Assyria, recorded conquering Jaffa from its sovereign, the Philistine king of Ashkelon. Under Persian rule, Jaffa was governed by Phoenicians from Tyre. During the Wars of the Diadochi, Antigonus Monophthalmus captured Jaffa in 315 BCE. Ptolemy I Soter later destroyed it in 312 BCE. Despite this destruction, Jaffa was resettled and became a Ptolemaic mint site in the third century BCE. Archaeological evidence from this period includes a watchtower and numerous stamped amphora handles. The area was transferred to Seleucid control after the Battle of Paneas in 198 BCE. Together with other primarily Phoenician-inhabited coastal plain cities like Gaza, Ascalon, Dor, and Acre, Jaffa became highly Hellenized during this period. According to records probably from 163 or 162 BCE during the Maccabean revolt, Jaffa's non-Jewish inhabitants invited Jewish foreign residents onto boats and subsequently sank them drowning hundreds. In retaliation, Judas Maccabeus attacked Jaffa setting the harbor on fire and destroying ships while killing many inhabitants though he did not attempt to hold the city. By 147 or 146 BCE his brother Jonathan Apphus expelled the garrison of Seleucid king Demetrius II from Jaffa but did not conquer the city. In 143 BCE Simon Thassi established a garrison in Jaffa expelling non-Jewish inhabitants to prevent collaboration with the Seleucid commander Tryphon. During operations of Antiochus VII Sidetes in Judaea, he demanded surrender of Jaffa among other cities. Simon negotiated a settlement by agreeing to pay a smaller tribute. Simon's capture of Jaffa is earlier praised in 1 Maccabees because of the city's strategic importance as a port. In the Hasmonean period the city was fortified and served as the main port of Judaea. Under Hasmonean king Alexander Jannaeus who ruled from 103 to 76 BCE, Jaffa was one of several coastal cities controlled by Jews including Straton's Tower, Apollonia, Iamnia, and Gaza. Archaeological evidence from this period includes remnants of walls tombs from early first century BCE and hoards of coins. Incidents of piracy before Roman conquest are mentioned by Josephus who accused Aristobulus of instigating raids and acts of piracy. These claims are echoed by Diodorus and Strabo though their reliability is debated given the term leistai pirates was often used pejoratively in this period. Jaffa was annexed to Syria by Pompey but later restored to Judaea by Julius Caesar reaffirming Jewish access to sea through traditional port. In 39 BCE Herod captured Jaffa from Antigonus though control fluctuated until Octavian returned it to Herod after defeat of Antony and Cleopatra. After Herod's death Jaffa along with Strato's Tower Caesarea Sebaste and Jerusalem was assigned to Archelaus' ethnarchy in Judaea. The construction of Herod's superior harbor at Caesarea diminished Jaffa's regional importance. Josephus's accounts indicate that Jaffa had city status administering surrounding districts reflecting continued regional significance. However he adds that the harbor at Jaffa was inferior to that of Caesarea. The population of the city during this period was predominantly Jewish. Strabo writing in early 1st century CE describes Jaffa as a location from which it is possible to see Jerusalem capital of Jews and writes that Jews used it as their naval arsenal when they descended to sea. Excavations suggest urban expansion during Hellenistic period under Ptolemaic rule followed by contraction under Seleucid and early Roman rule and renewed expansion later in Roman and Byzantine periods. Archaeological remains from Roman period are mainly found near harbor including rich finds like terra sigillata bread or cheese stamp and coins. In early stages of First Jewish-Roman War in 66 CE Cestius Gallus sent forces to Jaffa where city was destroyed and inhabitants indiscriminately killed. Josephus writes that 8,400 inhabitants were massacred. Subsequently city was resettled by Jews expelled from neighboring regions who used it to disrupt maritime commerce between Egypt and Syria. As Romans led by Vespasian approached Jaffa those Jews fled to sea but were devastated by storm killing 4,200 people. Those who reached shore were killed by Romans who subsequently destroyed Jaffa again and stationed troops to prevent reuse as pirate base. In 3rd century CE Jaffa was known by name Flavia Ioppe potentially indicating honorary designation under Flavian rule. Despite devastation and loss of life during revolt Jaffa maintained a Jewish population. Inscriptions from early 2nd century indicate Jewish involvement in local governance. Further evidence includes Jewish epitaphs dating from 3rd to 6th centuries some from members of diaspora along with references in Talmudic sources to scholars associated with Jaffa. Archaeological findings from 2nd and 3rd centuries reveal structures destroyed by fire possibly linked to regional unrest. During first centuries of Christianity Jaffa was fairly unimportant Roman and Byzantine locality which only in 5th century became bishopric. New religion arrived in Jaffa relatively late not appearing in historical records until Council of Ephesus in 431 CE. Very small number of its Greek or Latin bishops are known. Catholic Encyclopedia describes Jaffa as modest settlement with varying accounts of prosperity and state of preservation. The New Testament account of Saint Peter bringing back to life widow Dorcas recorded in Acts of Apostles takes place in Jaffa then called in Greek Ioppa. While Peter was in Jaffa he had vision of large sheet filled with clean and unclean animals being lowered from heaven together with message from Holy Spirit telling him to accompany several messengers to Cornelius in Caesarea Maritima. Peter retells story of his vision explaining how he had come to preach Christianity to gentiles. In Midrash Tanna'im in chapter reference is made to Jose ben Halafta 2nd century traveling through Jaffa. Jaffa seems to have attracted serious Jewish scholars in 4th and 5th century. Jerusalem Talmud compiled 4th and 5th century in Moed Ketan references Rabi Akha bar Khanina of Jaffa and in Pesachim chapter 1 refers to Rabi Pinchas ben Yair of Jaffa. Babylonian Talmud compiled 5th century in Megillah 16b mentions Rav Adda Demin of Jaffa. Leviticus Rabbah compiled between 5th and 7th century mentions Rav Nachman of Jaffa. Pesikta Rabbati written in 9th century in chapter 17 mentions R. Tanchum of Jaffa. Several streets and alleys of Jaffa Flea Market area are named after these scholars. In 636 Jaffa was conquered by Arabs. Under Islamic rule it served as port of Ramla then provincial capital. Al-Muqaddasi who lived from 946 to 991 described Yafah as lying on sea but small town although emporium of Palestine and port of Ar-Ramlah. He noted it protected by strong wall with iron gates and sea-gates also of iron. The mosque is pleasant to eye and overlooks sea. Harbor is excellent. Jaffa captured in June 1099 during First Crusade and was center of County of Jaffa and Ascalon one of vassals of Kingdom of Jerusalem. One of its counts John of Ibelin wrote principal book Assizes of Kingdom of Jerusalem. Saladin conquered Jaffa in 1187. City surrendered to King Richard Lionheart on the 10th of September 1191 three days after Battle of Arsuf. Despite efforts by Saladin to reoccupy city in July 1192 Battle of Jaffa city remained in hands of Crusaders. On the 2nd of September 1192 Treaty of Jaffa formally signed guaranteeing three-year truce between two armies. In 1229 Frederick II signed ten-year truce in new Treaty of Jaffa. He fortified castle of Jaffa and had two inscriptions carved into city wall one Latin other Arabic. Inscription deciphered in 2011 describes him as Holy Roman Emperor and bears date 1229 Incarnation of our Lord Jesus Messiah. In March 1268 Baibars sultan Egyptian Mamluks conquered Jaffa simultaneously with conquering Antioch. Baibars goal was conquer Christian crusader strongholds. An inscription from White Mosque Ramla today visible Great Mosque Gaza commemorates event. Abu'l-Fida who lived 1273 to 1331 writing in 1321 described Yafa in Filastin as small but very pleasant town lying on sea-shore. It has celebrated harbor. Town well fortified. Markets much frequented many merchants ply trades here. Large harbor frequented all ships coming Filastin set sail all lands. Between it Ar Ramlah distance 6 miles lies west Ar Ramlah. In 1432 Bertrandon de la Broquière observed Jaffa ruins few tents standing. He wrote pardons commence pilgrims Holy Land present entirely destroyed having only few tents covered reeds where pilgrims seek shelter heat sun. Sea enters town forming poor shallow harbor dangerous remain long fear driven shore by gust wind. When any pilgrims disembark interpreters other officers sultan instantly hasten ascertain numbers serve guides receive name master customary tribute. In 1515 Jaffa conquered Ottoman sultan Selim I. In census 1596 appeared located nahiya Ramli liwa Gaza. Population 15 households all Muslim paid fixed tax rate 33,3% various products total 7,520 akçe. Traveler Jean Cotwyk described Jaffa heap ruins when visited 1598. Botanist traveler Leonhard Rauwolf landed near site town the 13th of September 1575 wrote landed high rocky shore town Joppe did stand formerly time town so demolished not one house found. 17th century saw beginning re-establishment churches hostels Christian pilgrims en route Jerusalem Galilee. During 18th century coastline around Jaffa often besieged pirates led inhabitants relocate Ramla Lod rely messages solitary guard house inform ships approaching harbor. Landing goods passengers notoriously difficult dangerous. Until well into 20th century ships had to rely teams oarsmen bring cargo ashore. In 1775 Jaffa then controlled Daher al-Umar besieged Abu al-Dhahab mamluk strongman Ottoman Egypt. After 49 days siege city captured all adult males executed women children taken captive. On the 7th of March 1799 French troops under Napoleon captured town what became known siege Jaffa. French breached city walls after which Napoleon granted troops two days sack city retaliation envoys killed delivering ultimatum surrender. French soldiers rampaged through city killing looting raping. Napoleon also ordered massacre 2,100 Ottoman prisoners war discovering some previously captured French released promise take arms again. Many more died epidemic bubonic plague broke out soon afterwards.

• 3. The Orange Trade And Modern Economy

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  Residential life city reestablished early 19th century governor appointed devastation brought about by Napoleon Muhammad Abu-Nabbut commenced wide-ranging building restoration work Jaffa including Mahmoudiya Mosque public fountain known Sabil Abu Nabbut. During 1834 Peasants revolt Palestine Jaffa besieged forty days mountaineers revolt Ibrahim Pasha Egypt. In 1820 Isaiah Ajiman Istanbul built synagogue hostel accommodation Jews way four holy cities Jerusalem Hebron Tiberias Safed. Area became known Dar al-Yehud Arabic house Jews basis Jewish community Jaffa. Appointment Mahmud Aja Ottoman governor marked beginning period stability growth city interrupted 1832 conquest city Muhammad Ali Egypt. By 1839 at least 153 Sephardic Jews living Jaffa. Community served fifty years Rabbi Yehuda HaLevi miRagusa. Early 1850s HaLevi leased orchard Clorinda S. Minor founder Christian messianic community established Mount Hope farming initiative encourage local Jews learn manual trades Messianics pave way Second Coming Jesus. In 1855 British Jewish philanthropist Moses Montefiore bought orchard HaLevi though Minor continued manage it. American missionary Ellen Clare Miller visiting Jaffa 1867 reported town population about 5,000 1,000 Christians 800 Jews rest Moslems. Thompson writing 1856 has 25 years inhabitants city gardens about 6,000 now must 15,000 least considering length time lived area may accurate count. City walls torn down during 1870s allowing city expand. Until mid-19th century Jaffa orange groves mainly owned Arabs employed traditional methods farming. Pioneers modern agriculture Jaffa American settlers brought farm machinery 1850s 1860s followed Templers Jews. From 1880s real estate important branch economy. Biarah watered garden cost 100,000 piastres annually produced 15,000 farming costs 5,000 very fair percentage return investment. Water gardens easily accessible wells between ten forty feet deep. Jaffa citrus industry began flourish last quarter 19th century. E.C. Miller records about ten million oranges exported annually town surrounded three four hundred orange gardens each containing upwards thousand trees. Shamuti or Shamouti oranges aka Jaffa oranges major crop citrons lemons mandarin oranges also grown. Jaffa reputation producing best pomegranates Thomson page 517 Sidon best bananas Jaffa best pomegranates oranges Sidon more juicy richer flavor. Jaffa oranges hang trees much later bear shipping distant regions. Developed mid-19th century Jaffa orange first produced export city after developed Arab farmers. Orange primary citrus export city. Today along navel bitter orange one three main varieties fruit grown Mediterranean Middle East Southern Europe. Ladaniya 2008 pages 48 to 49. Jaffa orange emerged mutation tree Baladi variety sweet orange C. sinensis near city Jaffa. Basan 2007 page 83. After Crimean War 1853 to 56 most important innovation local agriculture rapid expansion citrus cultivation. Foremost among varieties cultivated Jaffa Shamouti orange mention exported Europe first appears British consular reports 1850s. Issawi 2006 page 127. One factor cited growth export market development steamships first half 19th century enabled export oranges European markets days rather weeks. Gerber 1982. Another reason cited growth industry relative lack European control cultivation oranges compared cotton formerly primary commodity crop Palestine outpaced Jaffa orange. LeVine 2005 page 272. Prosperity orange industry brought increased European interest involvement development Jaffa. In 1902 study growth orange industry Zionist officials outlined different Palestinian owners primary export markets England Turkey Egypt Austria-Hungary. While traditional Arabic cultivation methods considered primitive in-depth study financial expenditure involved reveals ultimately more cost-efficient than Zionist-European enterprises followed some two decades later. LeVine 2005 page 34. Most newspapers books printed Ottoman Palestine published Jaffa. In 1859 Jewish visitor L.A. Frankl found sixty-five Jewish families living Jaffa about 400 soul all. Of these four shoemakers three tailors one silversmith one watchmaker. There also merchants shopkeepers many live manual labour porters sailors messengers etc. Dr Frankl translated P. Beaton Jews East Volume 1 Hurst Blackett London 1859 Page 344. He adds community poor receives alms quarter which resulted some envy our bethren Jerusalem.

• 4. Conflict And The 1948 Exodus

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  By beginning 20th century population Jaffa swelled considerably. Group Jews left Jaffa sand dunes north where 1909 held lottery divide lots acquired earlier settlement known first Ahuzat Bayit assembly residents changed name Tel Aviv 1910. Other Jewish suburbs Jaffa already founded since 1887 others following Great War. In 1904 rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook 1864 to 1935 moved Ottoman Palestine took position Chief Rabbi Jaffa. During British Mandate tension between Jewish Arab population increased. Wave Arab attacks 1920 and 1921 caused many Jewish residents flee resettle Tel Aviv initially marginal Jewish neighbourhood north Jaffa. Jaffa riots 1921 known Hebrew Meoraot Tarpa began May Day parade turned violent. Arab rioters attacked Jewish residents buildings killing 47 Jews wounding 146. Report Commission Inquiry disturbances British Mandate Palestine May 1921 correspondence relating Disturbances Cmd. 1540 page 60. Hebrew author Yosef Haim Brenner killed riots. End 1922 Tel Aviv had 15,000 residents: by 1927 population risen 38,000. Still during most 1920s Jaffa Tel Aviv maintained peaceful co-existence. Most Jewish businesses located Jaffa some Jewish neighbourhoods paid taxes municipality Jaffa many young Jews afford housing costs Tel Aviv resided there big neighbourhood Menashiya largely fully mixed. First electric company British Mandate Palestine although owned Jewish shareholders named Jaffa Electric Company. In 1923 both Jaffa Tel Aviv begun rapid process wired electrification through joint grid. Ronen Shamir Current Flow Electrification Palestine Stanford Stanford University Press 2013. 1936 to 1939 Arab revolt Palestine severely impacted Jaffa. On the 19th of April 1936 riots broke out Jaffa rumours spread local Arab community Jews started kill Arabs Arab rioters attacked Jewish targets three days before British security forces quelled rioting. 9 Jews 2 Arabs killed dozens wounded. Response riots Arab leadership Palestine declared general strike began Jaffa Port quickly spread rest region. Land That Become Israel Studies Historical Geography ed. Ruth Kark Yale University Press Magnes Press 1989 Aerial Perspectives Past Landscapes Dov Gavish pages 316 to 317. After start general strike British troops stationed Palestine bolstered reinforcements Malta Egypt subdue rioting broken several major Palestinian cities. Arab rioters Jaffa used Old City contained maze homes winding alleyways underground sewer system escape arrest British security forces. Beginning May 1936 response further Arab unrest Jaffa British authorities suspended municipal services city establishing barricades around Old City covering access roads glass shards nails. June that year Royal Air Force bombers dropped boxes leaflets Arabic on Jaffa requesting city inhabitants evacuate same day. June 15 Royal Engineers used gelignite charges demolish between 220 and 240 Arab-owned homes Old City leaving open strip cut centre Jaffa end end displacing approximately 6,000 Arabs. Matthew Hughes Banality Brutality British Armed Forces Repression Arab Revolt Palestine 1936 to 39 English Historical Review Vol. CXXIV No. 507 pages 323 to 354 pages 322 to 323. Evening the 17th of June 1,500 British troops entered Jaffa Royal Navy warship moved near Jaffa Port seal escape routes sea. On the 29th of June British forces carried out another round house demolitions carving swath north south. British authorities claimed house demolitions Jaffa part facelift given Old City. Local Arab newspapers resorted using sarcasm describe demolitions writing British beautified Jaffa using boxes gelignite. Sir Michael McDonnell then serving Chief Justice Supreme Court Palestine found favour Arab petitions Jaffa upholding existing laws regarding house demolitions ruled against demolitions carried British forces Old City. Response Colonial Office dismissed post. Matthew Hughes Britain Pacification Palestine British Army Colonial State Arab Revolt 1936 to 39 Cambridge University Press 2019 page 36. Report produced Peel Commission 1937 recommended Jaffa together Bethlehem Jerusalem Lydda Ramle remain under permanent British control forming corridor sea port Holy Places accessible Arabs Jews alike whereas rest Mandatory Palestine split between Arab state Jewish state. Peel Report quote: Jaffa essentially Arab town Jewish minority recently dwindling. Suggest form part Arab State. Question communication latter presents difficulty transit through Jaffa-Jerusalem Corridor open all. Corridor otherwise requires own access sea purpose narrow belt land acquired cleared north south sides town. Also solve problem sometimes said insoluble created contiguity Jaffa Tel Aviv nascent Jewish town Bat Yam south. Necessary Mandatory police stationed belt arrangement may seem artificial clearly practicable. Village Statistics 1945 listed Jaffa population 94,310 whom 50,880 Muslims 28,000 Jews 15,400 Christians 30 classified other. Department Statistics 1945 page 27. Christians mostly Greek Orthodox about one-sixth members Eastern Catholic Churches. One prominent member Arab Christian community Greek Orthodox Issa El-Issa publisher newspaper Falastin. In 1945 Jewish community Jaffa complained city mayor Yousef Haikal neighbourhoods don't receive appropriate municipal services street lighting paving garbage removal sewerage etc. even though contribute 40% municipality budget. Some services education healthcare social services already provided Tel Aviv Municipality own expense formed base Jewish community demand Mandatory government annex neighbourhoods Tel Aviv. Year 1946 Tel Aviv Municipality spent £P 300K services Jewish neighbourhoods Jaffa increase £P 80K year 1942. In 1947 UN Special Commission Palestine recommended Jaffa included planned Jewish state. Due large Arab majority instead designated enclave Arab state 1947 United Nations Partition Plan Palestine. Enclave would exclude northern Jewish-populated parts city included agricultural lands south east city extending then-boundaries Mikveh Israel Holon Bat Yam. Resolution rejected Palestinian Arab leadership Arab League. Following outbreak civil war following passing UN partition resolution mayors Jaffa Tel Aviv tried calm communities. One main concerns people Jaffa protection citrus fruit export trade still reached pre-Second World War highs. Survey Palestine printed 1946 to 1947 Reprinted ISP Washington 1991 Page 474: Exports citrus fruit total value Palestine Pounds 1938/39 = P£4,355,853. 1944/45 = P£1,474,854. Ironically due Nazi conquest Netherlands Tel Aviv trade polished diamonds increased over three-fold P£3,235,117. Page 476. Eventually bilateral orange-picking exporting sides continued without formal agreement. Beginning 1948 Jaffa defenders consisted one company around 400 men organised Muslim Brotherhood almost none Palestinian Arabs Arab Brigade local Arab irregulars National Guard. Pritzke Herbert Bedouin Doctor adventures German Middle East Translated Richard Graves Weidenfeld Nicolson 1957 copyright Ullstein Co Vienna 1956 Page 149: At time Arab Brigade Jaffa consisted seven Germans hundred fifty Jugoslavs thirty Egyptians two hundred Lebanese Syrians. Very few Arabs among them preferred irregular warfare National Guard. As Haifa irregulars intimidated local population. On the 4th of January 1948 Lehi detonated truck bomb outside Saraka also known Grand Serai formerly Ottoman administrative building now housing Arab National Committee. Building nearby buildings destroyed twenty-six Palestinian civilians killed. Most dead many wounded not connected National Committee passersby staff food distribution programme poor children also same building. Most children present Sunday Khalidi Walid Before Their Diaspora Photographic History Palestinians 1876-1948 Washington DC Institute Palestine Studies 1991 page 324. February Jaffa Mayor Yousef Haikal contacted David Ben-Gurion through British intermediary trying secure peace agreement Tel Aviv commander Arab militia Jaffa opposed it. Frontline saw period mostly static warfare sporadic sniper fire machine gun bursts limited skirmishes. While introduction medium mortars early March 1948 escalated intensity fighting tactics remained largely unchanged. On the 25th of April 1948 Irgun launched offensive Jaffa. Began mortar bombardment went three days during which twenty tons high explosive fired town. Menachem Begin Revolt story Irgun Translated Samuel Katz Hadar Publishing Tel Aviv 1964 pages 355 to 371. Simultaneously Haganah launched Operation Hametz overran villages east Jaffa cut town interior. On the 27th of April British Government fearing repetition mass exodus Haifa week before ordered British Army confront Irgun battle offensive ended. On the 29th of April Irgun commander Tel-Aviv Jaffa district Eliyahu Tamler killed British shell. Morris 2004. British High Commissioner Palestine Alan Cunningham stated: It should made clear IZL attack mortars indiscriminate designed create panic among civilian inhabitants. Destruction Manshiya neighbourhood Jaffa May 1948 Palestinian refugees fleeing city. Irgun bombing Jaffa whose casualties mostly civilians combined fall Haifa few days earlier fear another massacre similar Irgun Deir Yassin massacre caused panic amongst Arab population Jaffa most eventually fled city. Irgun intelligence report the 28th of April stated bombardment city stopped movement buses Jaffa in it paralyzed completely supply food city hotels turned hospitals shelling caused great panic port filled masses refugees boarding boats took place confusion. Population Jaffa eve attack between 50,000 and 60,000 some 20,000 people having already left town. By the 30th of April there were 15,000 to 25,000 remaining Begin page 363. Following days further 10,000 to 20,000 people fled sea. When Haganah took control town the 14th of May around 4,000 people left. Town harbour warehouses extensively looted Jon Kimche Seven Falen Pillars Middle East 1915 to 1950 Secker Warburg London 1950 Page 224: orgy looting wanton destruction hangs black pall almost all Jewish military successes. Displacement Jaffa Arab population part larger 1948 Palestinian expulsion flight. City surrendered Haganah the 14th of May 1948 shortly British police army left city Yoav Gelber Independence Versus Nakba Kinneret Zmora-Bitan-Dvir Publishing 2004 page 104. Israeli historian Benny Morris writes widespread institutional private looting Haganah IZL troops Tel Aviv citizens infiltrated town robbery roads patrolling Jewish troops watches rings cash etc taken widespread vandalisation property. 3,800 Arabs remained Jaffa exodus concentrated Ajami district subject strict martial law. Military administration Jaffa lasted until the 1st of June 1949 point Tel Aviv Municipality took over administration; Jaffa Municipality de-jure still existence time exercised authority since 1948 dissolution 1950.

• 5. Municipal Unification And Demographics

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  Boundaries Tel Aviv Jaffa became matter contention between Tel Aviv municipality Israeli government during 1948. Former wished incorporate well-off Jewish suburbs north Jaffa latter wanted complete unification. Issue also international sensitivity main part Jaffa Arab portion United Nations Partition Plan whereas Tel Aviv not armistice agreements yet signed. Alternative proposal merging Bat Yam Holon form bigger city south Tel Aviv rejected financial grounds two small Jewish settlements lacked funds necessary sustain Jaffa. On the 10th of December 1948 government announced annexation Tel Aviv Jaffa Jewish suburbs Maccabi American-German Colony Volovelsky northwestern Florentin Giv'at Herzl Shapira territories outside Jaffa municipal boundary specifically Arab neighbourhood Abu Kabir Arab village Salama some agricultural land working class Jewish areas Hatikva Ezra annexed Tel Aviv same time introducing around 50,000 new residents city. On the 18th of May 1949 new boundary drawn Shari Es Salahi now Olei Zion Street Shari El Quds now Ben-Zvi Road thereby adding into Tel Aviv former Arab neighbourhood Manshiya part Jaffa city centre first time including land had Arab portion UN partition plan. Government decided permanent unification Tel Aviv Jaffa the 4th of October 1949 actual unification delayed until the 16th of June 1950 concerted opposition Tel Aviv mayor Israel Rokach demanded government funding 1M I£ towards expenses providing municipal services Jaffa. Jaffa expected consume 18% unified municipality budget contributing only 4% income. Two sides came agreement government covered 100K I£ unified municipality expenses funded healthcare education social services Jaffa residents directly state budget. Name unified city Tel Aviv until the 19th of August 1950 renamed Tel Aviv-Yafo preserve historical name Jaffa. Population Jaffa prior unification estimated 40,000 out them 5,000 Arabs most others new olim. Land formerly belonged Jaffa municipality annexed Tel Aviv includes neighbourhoods Manshiya Florentin Giv'at Herzl Shapira landmarks Charles Clore Park Hassan Bek Mosque Carmel Market former Jaffa railway station new Tel Aviv central bus station. On other hand Jaffa boundaries expanded southeast incorporating Gaon Stadium new neighbourhoods Neve Ofer Jaffa Gimel Jaffa Dalet. Other former Arab villages incorporated Tel Aviv-Jaffa include Al-Mas'udiyya annexed the 20th of December 1942 New North Jarisha annexed the 25th of November 1943 southern bank Yarkon River Al-Jammasin al-Gharbi annexed the 31st of March 1948 since 1957 redeveloped Bavli neighbourhood Al-Shaykh Muwannis annexed the 25th of February 1949 since 1955 redeveloped Tel Aviv University main campus. After Jewish takeover all pre-existing street names Jaffa abolished replaced numeric identifiers. By 1954 only four main streets proper names: Jerusalem former Djemal Pasha then King George V No.1 Avenue; Tarshish former Bustrus then No.2 now David Raziel Street; Eilat Street former No.298; Shalma Road former No.310. Road passing Florentin Neve Tzedek neighbourhoods until 1948 named Tel Aviv Road main thoroughfare two city centres. Annexation Florentin into Tel Aviv became internal road Tel Aviv name no longer sense. Thus section lying within new Tel Aviv boundaries renamed Jaffa Road section became new Tel Aviv-Jaffa boundary Eilat Street. Salama Road main eastwards road Jaffa towards depopulated village Salama renamed Shalma Road reconstructed Hebrew name Capharsalama mentioned as location battle Caphar-salama. However both names remain use. Arabic street names eventually replaced Hebrew ones e.g. Al-Kutub Street renamed Resh Galuta Street Abu Ubeyda Street renamed She'erit Yisra'el Street Al-Salahi Street renamed Olei Zion Street Esther Zandberg Where Streets Have No Arabic Name Group Women Reminds Us Palestinian History Haaretz the 20th of January 2022. Practice criticised residents affected Arabic neighbourhoods deem names inappropriate example street named Rabbi Simcha Bunim Peshischa called local laughingstock Tel Aviv-Jaffa city councillor Ahmed Belha street Al Siksik Mosque located Beit Eshel Street after short-lived Jewish settlement what now Beersheba. From 1990s onwards efforts made restore Arab Islamic landmarks such Mosque Sea Hassan Bek Mosque document history Jaffa Arab population. Parts Old City renovated turning Jaffa tourist attraction featuring old restored buildings art galleries theatres souvenir shops restaurants sidewalk cafes promenades. Many artists moved studios Tel Aviv Old City surroundings Jaffa port American-German Colony flea market. Beyond Old City tourist sites many neighbourhoods Jaffa poor underdeveloped. However real-estate prices risen sharply due gentrification projects Ajami Noga Lev Yafo. Municipality Tel Aviv-Yafo currently working beautify modernise port area. Modern Jaffa heterogeneous population Jews Christians Muslims. As 2021 Jaffa has 52,470 residents about third Arabs. Administratively Jaffa constitutes Borough 7 Tel Aviv-Yafo Municipality divided four sub-boroughs twelve neighbourhoods. Compared Tel Aviv-Yafo whole votes Arab parties especially prevalent Jaffa national elections Haviv Rettig Gur 20th Knesset parliament splintered tribal Israel. 2018 Tel Aviv-Jaffa city council election Yafa list represents Arab population Jaffa received 28% vote Jaffa making most voted party there second place taken Hadash-affiliated We are City list 14% vote. Among Jewish political parties right-wing parties Shas Likud perform better Jaffa relative municipality-wide results similarly working-class neighbourhoods southern Tel Aviv particular Shas received 12% vote Jaffa 2018 city council elections making third-most voted for party Jaffa. Jaffa suffers drug problems high crime rates violence. Some Arab residents alleged Israeli authorities attempting Judaize Jaffa evicting Arab residents houses owned Amidar government-operated public housing company. Amidar representatives say residents illegal squatters.

• 6. Archaeology And Urban Regeneration

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  Majority excavations Jaffa salvage nature conducted Israel Antiquities Authority IAA since 1990s. Excavations Rabbi Pinchas Street example flea market revealed walls water conduits dating Iron Age Hellenistic Early Islamic Crusader Ottoman periods. Limestone slab engraved menorah discovered Tanchum Street believed door tomb. Additional efforts conduct research excavations site included B.J. Isserlin 1950 Ze'ev Herzog Tel Aviv University 1997 to 1999 most recently Jaffa Cultural Heritage Project since 2007 directed Aaron A. Burke UCLA Martin Peilstocker Johannes Gutenberg University. December 2020 archaeologists IAA revealed 3,800-year-old jar containing badly preserved remains baby dates Middle Bronze Age. There always interpretation jar almost womb basically idea return baby back Mother Earth symbolic protection mother said archaeologist Alfredo Mederos Martin. Researchers also covered remains at least two horses pottery dated late Ottoman Empire 232 seashells 30 Hellenistic coins 95 glass vessel fragments Roman Crusader periods 14 fifth-century BCE rock-carved burials featuring lamps. Collège des Frères de Jaffa French international school. Tabeetha School Jaffa founded 1863 owned Church Scotland. School provides education English children Christian Jewish Muslim backgrounds. Muzot arts school old Jaffa caters teenagers haven successfully integrated traditional schools. Offers unique opportunity combine artistic pursuits academic studies leading matriculation certificate. Democratic school Jaffa established 2004 based ideas democratic education catering students 1st to 12th grade. Campus Academic College Tel Aviv-Yafo public college hosting more than 4,500 Israeli Arab students. College faculties include computer science economics management information systems psychology nursing. Jaffa Railway Station first railway station Levant served terminus Jaffa-Jerusalem railway. Station opened 1891 closed 1948. In 2005 to 09 station restored converted entertainment leisure venue marketed HaTachana Hebrew station. Jaffa served Dan Bus Company operates buses various neighbourhoods Tel Aviv Bat Yam. Red Line Tel Aviv Light Rail inaugurated 2023 crosses Jaffa north south along Jerusalem Boulevard. Of current stations Israel Railways network Holon Junction Holon-Wolfson railway stations sit boundary Jaffa Holon while Tel Aviv HaHagena Tel Aviv proper slightly east Jaffa. Jaffa cakes British confection named Jaffa oranges therefore indirectly namesake Jaffa. Knight Jaffa second episode Doctor Who story Crusade 1965 set Palestine Third Crusade. 1981 film Clash Titans set ancient Joppa. 2009 Oscar-nominated film Ajami set modern Jaffa. Asma Agbarieh born 1974 Israeli Arab journalist political activist Hanan Al-Agha 1948 to 2008 Palestinian plastic artist Shmuel Yosef Agnon 1888 to 1970 Nobel Prize-winning author Dahn Ben-Amotz 1924 to 1989 radio broadcaster author Yitzhak Ben-Zvi 1884 to 1963 historian Labor Zionist leader President Israel Benny Hinn born 1953 TV evangelist preacher Yosef Eliyahu Chelouche 1870 to 1934 one founders Tel Aviv businessman Joseph Constant 1892 to 1969 sculptor writer George Deek born 1984 Israeli Arab diplomat Ismail al-Faruqi 1921 to 1986 Palestinian-American philosopher Lea Gottlieb 1918 to 2012 Israeli founder fashion designer Gottex Ibtisam Mara'ana born 1975 Arab-Israeli filmmaker member Knesset Victor Norris Hamilton born Palestinian-born American cryptologist J.E. Hanauer 1850 to 1938 author photographer Canon St George's Church Hilmi Hanoun 1913 to 2001 writer politician Yizhar Harari 1908 to 1978 Zionist activist Israeli politician Haim Hazan 1937 to 1994 Israeli basketball player Zeev Hershkowitz former Israeli footballer Nadia.