International Society for Krishna Consciousness
The International Society for Krishna Consciousness, known to the public as the Hare Krishna Movement, was founded on the 13th of July 1966 in New York City. Its founder, A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, had arrived in the city only the year before. That September he led the first public kirtana in Washington Square Park. A kirtana is group chanting about Krishna, and it became the sound the movement is known for.
Today the organization claims around one million members worldwide. Its spiritual and administrative headquarters stands in Mayapur, West Bengal, India. It describes itself as a Hindu religious organization and follows a devotional tradition called Gaudiya Vaishnavism.
How did a faith rooted in sixteenth-century Bengal find its first audience among the young people of 1960s America? What held it together while its founder was alive, and what nearly broke it apart once he was gone? And what did the movement learn from the courtrooms, scandals and painful reckonings that followed?
Caitanya Mahaprabhu, born in sixteenth-century Bengal, is considered the founder of Gaudiya Vaishnavism. The name comes from Gauda, the old name for the Bengal region where his teachings spread. He began life as a brilliant young scholar, then became an ascetic overcome with ecstatic devotion to Krishna. A following gathered around the recitation of Krishna's names, and the tradition regards him as a contemporary incarnation of Krishna.
Caitanya died in 1534, having given no initiations and named no successor. On his way back from a pilgrimage to Vraja, he had asked Rupa Gosvami and Sanatana Gosvami to develop the theology of his community. They became leaders among the Six Goswamis of Vrindavan. Their scholarship gave prestige to a philosophy called acintya-bhedabheda, which holds that reality is inconceivably different and non-different at the same time.
The 19th century brought Bhaktivinoda Thakur, born Kedarnath Dutt, a Westernized Bengali who took up Gaudiya texts with scholarly rigor. He set out to publish them, and he mailed books to foreign universities in hopes of reaching the West. His son, Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati, born Bimala Prasad Dutt, founded the Gaudiya Math, the first formal organization of Vaishnava renunciates. Bhaktisiddhanta also allowed any devotee with the right qualities to count as a brahmin, which challenged the hereditary temple priesthood.
After Bhaktisiddhanta's death, three disciples were given joint governance of the Gaudiya Math. A council elected Ananta Vasudeva as leader, and Kunjabihari and his followers rejected the choice. Many other disciples left to found their own groups. By the middle of the 20th century, the Gaudiya Math had become a loose collection of disciple lines.
Abhay Charan De first met Bhaktisiddhanta in 1922 and was initiated by him in 1932. From their first meeting, he was told to spread the tradition to the Western world in English. The order was repeated weeks before Bhaktisiddhanta died in 1937. Abhay received the title Bhaktivedanta in 1939 and stayed out of the power struggle that split the Gaudiya Math. In 1959 he took a vow of renunciation in Vrindavan under the name A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami.
Earlier attempts by the Gaudiya Math to send individuals West to win converts had met with very little success.
In 1965 Bhaktivedanta reached New York City, where the upper class showed no interest in him. He moved into a poor district instead. There he met young bohemians, soon to be called hippies, who already knew something of Indian culture and were drawn to his charisma.
He laid out the society's purposes as spreading Krishna consciousness according to the Bhagavad Gita and Shrimad Bhagavatam, practicing public chanting, and publishing texts. In the early New York years he put little weight on lifestyle rules and tolerated lapses in traditional purity. The only real structure was chanting the Hare Krishna mantra. The movement spread through personal networks while he gradually taught his disciples the original Indian tradition.
In 1967 the movement relocated to Haight-Ashbury in San Francisco. Its large, wandering hippie population welcomed public preaching, and growth was rapid. Over the next two years followers appeared in cities across North America, and they began calling him Srila Prabhupada. In 1968 disciples founded New Vrindavan in West Virginia, the first Hare Krishna commune. That same year they reached George Harrison of the Beatles in the United Kingdom, who recorded a hit single titled Hare Krishna Mantra. The first ISKCON temple in Europe opened at Bury Place in London.
Prabhupada's books were central to the expansion. They included Bhagavad-gita As It Is, Krishna: The Supreme Personality of Godhead, Srimad-bhagavatam, Caitanya-caritamrita and the Back to Godhead magazine. His English translations and commentaries were written with beginners in mind. According to the scholar Hopkins, young Westerners were eager to accept his firm discipline, which stood against the loose habits of the counterculture.
Prabhupada called his plan for the world a strategy of "cultural conquest".
At 4:30 in the morning, a devoted ISKCON member begins the day with the first viewing of the temple deities. Two hours of chanting follow, then offerings to the guru, then prasadam, the main meal. An initiated devotee vows to follow four regulative principles. These forbid eating meat, fish or eggs, taking intoxicants, gambling, and illicit sex. The intoxicants listed include alcohol, drugs, tobacco, coffee, tea, onion and garlic.
Initiation also brings a new spiritual name and a daily duty of sixteen rounds of the mantra on 108 beads. That totals 1,728 repetitions and takes about an hour and a half. Devotees are also asked to spend an hour reading Prabhupada's works.
The movement's theology centers on Krishna, whom Prabhupada called the supreme personality of Godhead. The public often sees the faith as monotheistic. A closer look finds it panentheistic, with the Supreme Being appearing in many forms while remaining the one ultimate reality. The soul has an eternal identity that does not dissolve into the impersonal Brahman, as the Advaita schools teach. It is of the same nature as Krishna yet separate, and it passes through reincarnation shaped by karma. Prabhupada held that the path of devotion, bhakti, is easier and superior to the paths of action and knowledge.
Devotees express that devotion in ritual. During arati, they offer water, incense, a lamp and flowers to a murti, a sacred image of Krishna. They also bathe it, dress it, feed it and put it to sleep. On Sundays many gather for the Sunday Feast, with deity worship, talks by senior devotees, kirtan and sanctified food. The yearly Ratha Yatra festival sends a chariot carrying Jagannatha, Balabhadra and Subhadra through the streets, followed by performances and free vegetarian food.
The followers' meals have their own name, "Krishnatarian." Such food is cooked fresh and vegetarian, without onion, garlic, red lentils or mushrooms, and offered to the deities first. Many devotees have opened Govindas restaurants and catering businesses.
The path of advancement runs from initiation into the Holy Name to a life as a celibate student or a householder. After several years, a disciple may receive brahmin initiation and serve as a temple priest. Prabhupada gave that initiation to women and allowed them to serve as priests, a break from historical Indian practice, though Indian ISKCON temples follow the older custom.
The sixteen words of the Hare Krishna mantra run: Hare Krishna Hare Krishna Krishna Krishna Hare Hare, Hare Rama Hare Rama Rama Rama Hare Hare. Prabhupada taught that a chanter does not need to understand the mantra. Simply chanting brings spiritual benefit and ecstatic love. The idea has deep roots in Hinduism, where a theory from Sanskrit linguistics holds that correctly pronounced sacred sounds produce results even if the meaning is unknown. The Gaudiya tradition added its own stress on loud, audible chanting. The mantra first appears in the Kali-Santarana Upanishad, dated to about A.D. 1500.
In the 1970s, kirtan carried ISKCON into public view. Devotees sang in streets and parks with the mridanga drum, hand cymbals and harmonium. They also distributed books and preached in airports, sometimes pushily. The practice continues around the world, but in a less confrontational manner.
George Harrison's 1970 hit "My Sweet Lord" carried the mantra to millions. John Lennon sang "Hare Krishna" in "Give Peace a Chance" and in the Beatles' 1967 track "I Am the Walrus." Backing singers repeat the phrase in Ringo Starr's 1971 hit "It Don't Come Easy," though it was mixed low. Of the four Beatles, only Harrison fully embraced Krishna consciousness. He supported the UK branch financially and in 1973 bought Bhaktivedanta Manor for its temple compound. His friendship with Prabhupada inspired songs such as "Living in the Material World." Prabhupada also ordered that the "Govindam Prayers," arranged by Harrison and led by a woman's voice, be played at every morning prayer.
In the 1980s, the underground New York hardcore punk band the Cro-Mags included Hare Krishna members and referred to Krishna consciousness. By the early 1990s a Krishnacore subgenre had formed around bands like Shelter and 108. Annual kirtan festivals now gather singers at places such as Boone, North Carolina, Dallas, Texas, and Durbuy, Belgium. Kirtan also reaches yoga festivals, university Bhakti Clubs and mantra lounges.
In 2020 Willow Smith and Jahnavi Harrison collaborated on the song "Surrender (Krishna Keshava)" and the album RISE, built from ancient sacred songs with Sanskrit lyrics.
On the 28th of July 1970, Prabhupada signed a document called Direction of Management. It named twelve members to a new Governing Body Commission, or GBC, none of them renunciates. They included Satsvarupa dasa Goswami, Hansadutta Swami and Tamala Krishna Goswami. The commission's tasks were improving temple management, spreading Krishna consciousness, distributing books, opening new centers and educating devotees.
Prabhupada nonetheless kept autocratic control for the rest of his life. His final will gave the GBC the ultimate managerial authority, a choice shaped by watching the Gaudiya Math fracture. In the months before he died in 1977, he named eleven disciples as initiating gurus and officiators. They served alongside fourteen non-guru leaders on the GBC.
The period after his death was marked by decline and factionalism. Many of the new gurus ruled their zones as absolute authorities, and some sat on thrones and accepted worship. From 1978 to 1982 a series of guru crises nearly split the movement. In 1980, police in Berkeley, California found weapons and ammunition stored by the local community, and the GBC took one guru's guruship away for a year. Another guru, Jayatirtha Swami, began shrieking and crying through kirtan for hours, and the GBC suspended him for a year. A third claimed to be the sole true intermediary to Prabhupada and was suspended as well. A fourth urged that guru worship be reduced, and the GBC rejected his proposals.
The most serious schism came in 1982, when a guru defected to join a godbrother of Prabhupada known as "Maharaja Swami." A year later, Hansadutta Swami was suspended for a year over drug abuse and insubordination. The GBC then moved to democratize the guru role. By 1986 twenty-four new gurus had been elected. Pressure grew to lower worship of gurus, remove their thrones, recognize Prabhupada as the sole acharya and end the zonal system. Of the original eleven, five accepted the reforms, two had been expelled over doctrine and three were removed for illicit sexual activity. Kirtanananda Swami was expelled in 1987 for refusing the GBC's demands.
The departures were large. From a peak of almost 5,000 disciples, the number fell to approximately 1,000 in 1983.
The movement's money had long come from sankirtana, the street distribution of literature for donations, which paid the bills until 1972. As needs grew, sankirtana shifted from preaching toward book-selling. Some devotees hid their religious affiliation, haggled prices upward after a buyer agreed, or sold non-religious goods in a practice called picking. Public bodies objected in the late 1970s. American courts generally upheld the right of devotees to proselytize in airports, fairs and highway rest stops under the First Amendment. As sankirtana declined as a financial base, the communal life of the temples broke up by the 1990s. Devotees took ordinary jobs, grew less dependent on temples and began raising nuclear families.
The role of women changed as well. In the early years, Prabhupada gladly appointed women to prominent positions. By 1974 he no longer approved new marriages, and women were pushed out of view. Sannyasis, the male renunciates, multiplied, and almost 90 percent of them could not keep their vows. In the late 1980s, criticism of the treatment of women grew. In 1998 Malati Devi Dasi became the first woman appointed to the GBC. It has since grown to 48 senior members, who decide by consensus.
In the movement's first decade, the American public treated the Hare Krishnas cordially. That changed in the 1970s and 1980s, when secular anti-cult groups and Christian counter-cultists attacked it as a cult. Families of devotees feared for their children, and the anti-cult movement grew. The scholar Larry Shinn dismissed claims of brainwashing as "ludicrous" and said ISKCON's persuasion was simply enthusiastic preaching. He argued that attempts to rescue members through deprogramming looked more like brainwashing. ISKCON responded by inviting scholars to write about it and by calling them as expert witnesses.
In 1976, a grand jury indicted ISKCON, Inc. and the president of one temple for unlawful imprisonment in the case People v. Murphy. The parents of two members said their children had been brainwashed. The court dismissed the case, ruling that the two had freely followed their chosen faith. It called the Hare Krishna religion a "bona fide religion with roots in India that go back thousands of years."
The 1984 case George v. International Society for Krishna Consciousness of California ended with a mixed result. Marcia and Robin George accused ISKCON of kidnapping Robin through brainwashing, and sued for false imprisonment, emotional distress, libel and the wrongful death of Robin's father. A California appellate court dismissed Robin's claims. It upheld the jury verdicts in Marcia's favor for emotional distress and wrongful death.
New Vrindaban made headlines in 1987, when the remains of a devotee missing for five years were found. Its leader, Kirtanananda Swami, had run the largest and most famous Hare Krishna community in the United States. A jury found him guilty of racketeering and mail fraud in 1991, but those convictions were overturned on appeal. In 1996 he pleaded guilty to one count of racketeering. He served 8 years of a 20-year sentence and was released in 2004.
In 1998 ISKCON published its own account of widespread physical, emotional and sexual abuse of children in its boarding schools in the United States and India in the 1970s and 1980s. The report said the monks and young devotees looking after the children had no training and often resented the work. Former students had testified in 1996 that they were beaten, denied medical care and sexually abused. The sociologist E. Burke Rochford argues that leaders' disdain for householders and children helped create that culture. In 2002 alleged victims filed a $900 million suit in a Texas court, and ISKCON sought Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection. The 2008 settlement in the Turley Case came to $15 million. ISKCON Resolve and the ISKCON Child Protection Office were created in response, but trust in the leadership had eroded.
Abroad, ISKCON faced official limits as well. After Prabhupada visited Indonesia in 1973, the movement grew on Bali. In 1984 the Indonesian Attorney General banned its publications and activities for "disturbing public order" under decree KEP-107/J.A/5/1984. The decree also closed its publisher and book distributor, citing risks to harmony among Hindus.
Around one million congregational members worldwide, most of them in India, is ISKCON's own count, including some 15,000 in Great Britain. In the West the full-time core is small, estimated at a few thousand people. Those showing interest might number in the tens of thousands. In 2000, only 750-900 members were thought to live in ISKCON centers in the United States.
Since then the movement has leaned on the Indian diaspora. In most North American congregations, Indian members now make up 80 percent of the numbers. Eastern Europe offered a different story. The movement grew rapidly there as the Cold War ended, though its situation there began to deteriorate in the late 1990s.
The 1990s also changed the movement's aim. Leaders moved away from initiated disciples living in utopian communes and toward reaching congregational members. By the turn of the 21st century, ISKCON no longer saw the outside world as something to reject or conquer. It also stopped expecting instant perfection from newcomers.
The scholars Rochford and Neubert describe a gradual Hinduization of ISKCON. Prabhupada had set Krishna consciousness apart from Hinduism, calling it a universal teaching. In recent decades members have more often used the words Hindu and Hinduism. Scholars cite three causes: the participation of diaspora Hindus, devotees with academic careers studying Hindu texts, and growing involvement in global inter-religious dialogue. In those conversations, ISKCON often finds itself speaking for Hinduism itself.
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Common questions
When was the International Society for Krishna Consciousness founded?
The International Society for Krishna Consciousness was founded on the 13th of July 1966 in New York City by A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada. He led its first public kirtana in Washington Square Park that September.
Where is the International Society for Krishna Consciousness headquartered?
The movement's spiritual and administrative headquarters is in Mayapur, West Bengal, India. The society claims around one million members worldwide, most of them in India.
What are the four regulative principles of the International Society for Krishna Consciousness?
Initiated devotees vow to avoid meat, fish and eggs, to avoid intoxicants, to avoid gambling, and to avoid illicit sex. The listed intoxicants include alcohol, drugs, tobacco, coffee, tea, onion and garlic.
How many times a day do International Society for Krishna Consciousness devotees chant the Hare Krishna mantra?
Initiated devotees chant sixteen rounds on 108 beads each day, totaling 1,728 repetitions. This takes about an hour and a half.
What happened to the International Society for Krishna Consciousness after Prabhupada died in 1977?
Eleven gurus appointed by Prabhupada took charge, and a series of guru crises from 1978 to 1982 nearly split the movement. Disciple numbers fell from a peak of almost 5,000 to approximately 1,000 in 1983, and the GBC later elected twenty-four new gurus by 1986.
How did the International Society for Krishna Consciousness respond to child abuse in its boarding schools?
ISKCON published its own report in 1998 on abuse in its boarding schools in the United States and India during the 1970s and 1980s. A 2008 settlement in the Turley Case was $15 million, and the movement created ISKCON Resolve and the ISKCON Child Protection Office.
Who makes up the membership of the International Society for Krishna Consciousness in North America today?
Indian members make up 80 percent of most North American congregations. The movement has depended on the Indian diaspora since losing momentum in the West from the early 1980s.
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