Herculaneum

• 1. Founding And Early History

  ›

  The Greek hero Heracles founded the city according to Dionysius of Halicarnassus. Strabo claimed that Oscans established the first settlement instead. Etruscans later took control of the area before Greeks drove them out. The Greeks named the town Heraklion and used it as a trading post near the Gulf of Naples. In the 4th century BC, Herculaneum came under Samnite domination. City walls rose between 2nd and 3rd meters thick during the 2nd century BC. These walls were built from large pebbles except for the coastal section made of opus reticulatum. The town participated in the Social War on the side of Allies against Rome. Titus Didius defeated the town after the war ended. Following defeat, the walls lost their protective purpose and became integrated into houses like the House of the Inn. It became a Roman municipium in 89 BC.

  12

• 2. Catastrophic Eruption Of 79 AD

  ›

  Mount Vesuvius began spewing volcanic material at around 1 pm on the first day of eruption. Pliny described the column flattening at the top as resembling a stone pine tree. Prevailing winds blew toward the southeast causing ash to fall primarily on Pompeii. Only a few centimeters of ash fell on Herculaneum since it lay west of the volcano. Most inhabitants fled due to the falling ash prompting little damage initially. At 1 am the next day the eruptive column collapsed onto Vesuvius and its flanks. A pyroclastic surge flowed down the mountain through the mostly evacuated town at high speed. Six flows and surges buried buildings to approximately 20 meters depth. Some areas suffered significant damage while others preserved structures almost intact. A marble statue of Marcus Nonius Balbus was blown away near the baths. Carbonized skeletons were found lifted above ground level in gardens. The date of the eruption has been shown to be on or after the 17th of October. Buried people wore heavier clothing than typical summer clothes for August. Fresh fruit and vegetables in shops are typical of October rather than August. Wine fermenting jars had been sealed around the end of October.

  4591020

• 3. Rediscovery And Eighteenth Century Excavations

  ›

  Prince d'Elbeuf began constructing a villa in Granatello and grew intrigued by local tales of wells containing antique sculptures. In 1709 he acquired the site of a recently dug well and tunneled out from its bottom searching for sculptures. The tunnel reached what would later be identified as a theatre where remarkable sculptures were uncovered. Two exquisitely carved Herculaneum women currently housed in Dresden were among the earliest finds. Excavation ceased in 1711 due to concerns about structural stability above. Major excavations resumed in 1738 under Charles III of Spain who built his nearby palace in Portici. Italian military engineer Giovanni Antonio Medrano supervised the extensive new project alongside Roque Joaquin de Alcubierre. Publication of Le Antichità di Ercolano influenced nascent European Neoclassicism significantly. Motifs from Herculaneum appeared on fashionable furnishings including decorative wall-paintings and teacups by the late 18th century. Excavation ceased once again in 1762 following Winckelmann's harsh criticism of treasure-hunting techniques. King Francis I ordered land acquisitions promoting renewed excavations between 1828 and 1837. Acquisitions continued under the Kingdom of Italy extending excavations eastwards till 1875.

  367811

• 4. Architectural Layout And Urban Design

  ›

  The classical street layout separates the city into blocks defined by intersection of east-west and north-south streets. Insula II to Insula VII run counterclockwise from Insula II. Two additional blocks exist to the east labeled Orientalis I and Orientalis II. A group known as Suburban District lies south of Orientalis I. Individual buildings have their own entrance numbers like House of Deer labeled Ins IV, 3. The Forum temples theatre numerous houses and necropoles remain buried today. Portions of the historic city lie as much as 4 meters below sea level due to bradyseism affecting the entire Vesuvius region. A single main drain collected water from the Forum and house impluviums along Cardo III. Other drains emptied directly into the street except latrines equipped with a cesspit. Water supply connected directly to the Serino aqueduct built in Augustan age bringing water through lead pipes under roads regulated by valves. Wells had been used previously before this system arrived. The House of Aristides opens directly onto an atrium but ruins are not well preserved due to damage caused by previous excavations. Lower floor was probably used for storage while upper floors housed living spaces.

  121314

• 5. Villa Of The Papyri And Ancient Library

  ›

  The famous Villa of the Papyri was built on the seashore on four terraces. It is thought to have belonged to consul Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus who was Julius Caesar's father-in-law. He was a patron of poets and philosophers building there the only ancient library that has survived virtually intact. Between 1752 and 1754 workmen recovered blackened unreadable papyrus scrolls from the villa. These scrolls became known as Herculaneum papyri stored today at National Library Naples. Although badly carbonized some scrolls have been unrolled with varying degrees of success. Computer-enhanced multi-spectral infrared imaging helped make ink legible. There is now real prospect it will be possible to read unopened rolls using X-rays. CT scans revealed scrolls' fiber structure sand and other debris trapped inside helping safer unrolling. Two rolls stored at French National Academy in Paris were extensively examined by X-ray in summer 2009. Text imaging failed because Roman writers likely used carbon-based inks essentially invisible to X-ray scans. In 2015 scientists managed to increase contrast between carbon ink and carbon-based papyrus reading Greek words along outer papyrus marking revolution for papyrologists.

  161925

• 6. Boathouses And Human Remains Analysis

  ›

  Excavations initially turned up more than 55 skeletons on ancient beach just front of city walls in first six so-called boat sheds between 1980 and 1981. Before this finding majority believed town inhabitants had managed to flee since only few skeletons unearthed during earlier excavations. Last inhabitants waiting for rescue from sea probably killed instantly by intense heat pyroclastic flow despite being sheltered from direct impact. Study of victims postures effects on skeletons indicated first surge caused instant death resulting from fulminant shock due to temperature about 500 degrees Celsius. Extreme heat caused hands feet contract perhaps fracturing bones and teeth. Further excavations in 1990s uncovered 296 skeletons on beach huddled in nine stone vaults facing sea. While town almost completely evacuated these people found themselves trapped. Ring Lady named for rings on fingers discovered there in 1982. Eventually 340 bodies identified in area according to study published 2020. Analyses suggest mainly men died beach while women children sheltered died inside boat houses. Chemical analysis remains able provide further insights into health nutrition population. Stable isotope analysis bone samples from 17 individuals revealed men ate 1.6 times fish women consumed meat eggs dairy fitting wider dietary trend.

  10202122

• 7. Modern Conservation Challenges And Projects

  ›

  Volcanic ash debris covering Herculaneum left remarkable state preservation over 1,600 years until excavations began exposure elements slow process deterioration. Earlier excavation practices generally focused valuable artifacts rather than preserving archaeological value site. Preservation skeletal remains became top priority only early 1980s under direction Sara C Bisel. Intensive tourism vandalism substandard management political ineptitude contributed deterioration numerous sites buildings. Numerous building foundations weakened water damage caused modern Ercolano reconstruction initiatives often proved counterproductive. Recent conservation efforts greater success though excavations temporarily discontinued direct funding programs. Large number artifacts preserved Naples National Archaeological Museum. In 2001 Packard Humanities Institute began Herculaneum Conservation Project private-public partnership initially set provide financial aid local authorities addressing critical issues. Program eventually shifted include providing skilled expert support formulating long-term plan site. Since 2001 project involved pilot conservation projects partnered British School Rome training students maintain site. One pilot project started tablinum conserved Maiuri team 1938. Over time water seeped wall causing paint attach previously applied wax curl away stripping color. Working tandem Getty Museum conservators created technique solvents remove some wax lessen buildup walls so paint no chips off.

  32425