Henry VII of England
Henry Tudor was born on the 28th of January 1457 inside Pembroke Castle. This stone fortress stood in Little England beyond Wales, an English-speaking enclave within Pembrokeshire. His father Edmund Tudor died three months before his son arrived into the world. Henry's mother Lady Margaret Beaufort was only thirteen years old at that time. Her family line traced back to John of Gaunt through a branch known as the House of Beaufort. Gaunt had been the fourth son of Edward III and his mistress Katherine Swynford for about twenty-five years. They married in 1396 after having four children together including Henry's great-grandfather John Beaufort. A royal proclamation read in Parliament declared these children legitimate but also barred them from inheriting the throne. Henry IV issued new letters patent in 1407 confirming their status while maintaining this exclusion. Despite this legal barrier Henry remained the senior male claimant heir to the House of Lancaster by 1483. He spent fourteen years living in exile under the protection of Francis II Duke of Brittany. During those years he fled across the Channel when Yorkist forces regained power in 1471. He once feigned stomach cramps at Saint-Malo to delay his departure from France. An ally soon brought news that Francis had recovered allowing Henry to escape to a monastery where he claimed sanctuary.
Henry landed at Mill Bay near Dale in Pembrokeshire with a small French and Scottish force. His army numbered between five thousand and six thousand soldiers who marched toward England. He was accompanied by his uncle Jasper Tudor and John de Vere Earl of Oxford. Wales served as a Lancastrian stronghold due to his Welsh birth and ancestry. Henry traced his lineage directly back to Rhys ap Gruffydd through an old Anglesey family. On the 22nd of August 1485 his forces defeated Richard III's Yorkist army at Bosworth Field. Several key allies including Henry Percy Earl of Northumberland switched sides during the battle. Lord Stanley and his brother William also left the field or changed allegiance. Richard III died on the battlefield ending the Wars of the Roses effectively. Henry declared himself king retroactively from the day before the battle on the 21st of August 1485. This legal maneuver allowed him to confiscate lands from anyone who fought against him. He spared Richard's nephew John de la Pole Earl of Lincoln initially. A coronation took place at Westminster Abbey on the 30th of October 1485. He married Elizabeth of York in 1486 uniting the warring houses of Lancaster and York.
Henry faced several rebellions over the next twelve years following his victory. The first rebellion involved the Stafford brothers abetted by Viscount Lovell but collapsed without fighting. In 1487 Yorkists led by Lincoln rebelled supporting Lambert Simnel as a claimant to the throne. The rebellion began in Ireland where Gerald FitzGerald Earl of Kildare proclaimed Simnel king. Henry defeated them at the Battle of Stoke killing Lincoln. He showed remarkable clemency by pardoning Kildare and making Simnel a servant in the royal kitchen. Simnel was put in charge of roasting meats on a spit for the royal household. Another pretender named Perkin Warbeck appeared in 1490 claiming to be Richard of Shrewsbury. Warbeck won support from Margaret Duchess of Burgundy and led invasions of England in 1495. James IV of Scotland invaded England in 1496 on Warbeck's behalf. Warbeck landed in Cornwall with a few thousand troops in 1497 before being captured and executed. William Stanley Chamberlain of the Household was arrested after agents found a bag containing around ten thousand pounds in coins. Stanley was later executed for supporting Warbeck's cause. Henry had the Earl of Warwick executed in 1499 while sparing his sister Margaret until 1541.
Henry restored the fortunes of an effectively bankrupt exchequer through ruthless efficiency. He introduced new taxes including Morton's Fork which forced nobles to pay regardless of their spending habits. Those who spent little must have saved much according to Archbishop John Morton's logic. Those who spent much obviously had the means to pay increased taxes as well. The Baron Dynham and the Earl of Surrey served as Lord High Treasurers throughout most of his reign. Henry improved tax collection by acquiring land through the act of resumption in 1486. A commission revealed widespread abuses in the tax collection process after his death. Simple greed underscored the means by which royal control was over-asserted in his final years. Richard Empson and Edmund Dudley were executed on trumped-up charges of treason by Henry VIII. Henry established the pound avoirdupois as a standard of weight used today. In 1506 he resumed construction of King's College Chapel Cambridge guaranteeing finances that continued after his death. His personal fortune grew significantly from extracting money on many pretexts including war with France or Scotland. The money so extracted added to the King's personal fortune rather than being used for stated purposes.
The Treaty of Redon signed in February 1489 sent six thousand troops under Lord Daubeney to fight at Brittany's expense. Henry started a new policy to recover Guyenne and other lost Plantagenet claims in France. He concluded a treaty with France at Etaples bringing money into England's coffers. This agreement ensured the French would not support pretenders like Perkin Warbeck. Henry mounted a minor invasion of Brittany in November 1492 costing twenty-four thousand pounds. He commissioned Europe's first ever dry dock at Portsmouth in 1495 strengthening the navy. John Cabot received letters patent from Henry in March 1496 permitting an exploratory voyage westward. Cabot was eventually rewarded with a pension though he perished at sea after a later unsuccessful expedition. The Treaty of Medina del Campo married Arthur Prince of Wales to Catherine of Aragon. A treaty with Scotland betrothed Margaret Tudor to James IV breaking the Auld Alliance. Henry formed an alliance with Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I in 1493. He persuaded Pope Innocent VIII to issue a papal bull against all pretenders to his throne. In 1506 Grand Master Emery d'Amboise asked Henry to become protector of the Knights Hospitaller.
Henry created a Council of Wales and the Marches for his son Arthur to govern Cheshire and Cornwall. He passed laws against livery and maintenance to curb noble power over private armies. These laws were used shrewdly in levying fines upon those perceived as threats. His principal weapon became the Court of Star Chamber which acted swiftly through trusted Privy Council members. Serious disputes involving personal power or threats to royal authority were dealt with here. Justices of the Peace served nationwide appointed for every shire for one year terms. Their powers and numbers steadily increased during the time of the Tudors never more so than under Henry's reign. They replaced suspect jurors according to the 1495 act preventing corruption of juries. All Acts of Parliament were overseen by justices of the peace checking weights and measures. By 1509 these officials were key enforcers of law and order for Henry VII. They remained unpaid meaning a smaller tax bill for law enforcement overall. Local gentry saw the office as one of local influence and prestige willing to serve despite constraints.
Arthur Prince of Wales died suddenly at Ludlow Castle on the 2nd of April 1502 from English sweating sickness. Henry surprised courtiers with intense grief and sobbing at his son's death. Queen Elizabeth died the following year causing him to shut himself away refusing to speak to anyone. He was shattered by her loss affecting him severely. Henry made half-hearted plans to remarry but these never came to anything. He entertained thoughts of remarriage to Joanna Dowager Queen of Naples sending ambassadors in 1505. The wedding never took place though he considered several potential spouses including Margaret Dowager Duchess of Savoy. Henry fell among the minority of British monarchs who never had any known mistresses. His second son Henry Duke of York became heir apparent after Arthur's death. Henry died of tuberculosis at Richmond Palace on the 21st of April 1509. He was buried in the chapel he commissioned next to his wife Elizabeth. His mother Margaret Beaufort died two months later on the 29th of June. Letters surviving in the British National Archives show a man loosening his purse strings generously for family until Elizabeth's death.
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Common questions
When was Henry VII of England born and where?
Henry Tudor was born on the 28th of January 1457 inside Pembroke Castle. This stone fortress stood in Little England beyond Wales, an English-speaking enclave within Pembrokeshire.
How did Henry VII of England become king of England?
His forces defeated Richard III's Yorkist army at Bosworth Field on the 22nd of August 1485. He declared himself king retroactively from the day before the battle on the 21st of August 1485 to confiscate lands from enemies.
What rebellions did Henry VII of England face during his reign?
He faced several rebellions including those led by Lambert Simnel and Perkin Warbeck who claimed to be Richard of Shrewsbury. Warbeck landed in Cornwall with a few thousand troops in 1497 before being captured and executed.
How did Henry VII of England restore the royal finances?
Henry restored the fortunes of an effectively bankrupt exchequer through ruthless efficiency and new taxes like Morton's Fork. He introduced laws against livery and maintenance to curb noble power over private armies while increasing tax collection.
When did Henry VII of England die and where was he buried?
Henry died of tuberculosis at Richmond Palace on the 21st of April 1509. He was buried in the chapel he commissioned next to his wife Elizabeth.