Hajj

• 1. Introduction

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  Hajj is the annual Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca in Saudi Arabia, the holiest city in Islam. Between 2000 and 2019, official statistics counted an average of 2,269,145 attendees every year. The peak came in 2012, with 3,161,573 participants. Most of those people came from outside Saudi Arabia, and all of them converged on one city in the same week. They wore the same plain clothing, walked the same circuits, and stood on the same plain. Why does a faith ask every capable believer to make this journey once? What exactly do millions of strangers do together, and where did those rites come from? How does a single country keep such a crowd fed, housed and safe? And what has happened in the years when it could not?

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• 2. Hajar and Abraham

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  The word Hajj has a cousin in Hebrew. The Arabic ḥajj resembles the Hebrew ḥag, meaning festival, and both come from a Semitic root of three consonants. The Hebrew term referred to the three pilgrimage festivals that Israelites made each year to the Temple in Jerusalem.

  According to Islamic tradition, a woman named Hajar once ran seven times between two desert hills, searching for water. Her husband Abraham had been ordered by God to leave her and their son Ishmael alone in the desert of ancient Mecca. The hills were Safa and Marwah, and she found no water on either. She returned in despair and saw the baby scratching the ground with his leg. A fountain sprang up beneath his foot.

  Later, Abraham was commanded to build the Kaaba, which he did with the help of Ishmael. He was also told to invite people to make pilgrimage there. The Quran refers to these incidents. A later commentary, the tafsir of Zamakhshari, who died in 1144, adds that the archangel Gabriel brought the Black Stone from Heaven so it could be attached to the Kaaba.

  In pre-Islamic Arabia, a time Muslims call the Age of Ignorance, or Jahiliyya, the Kaaba became surrounded by pagan idols. In 630, Muhammad led his followers from Medina to Mecca. He destroyed the idols and consecrated the building to God. Two years later, on the 9th of March 632, he made his first and last pilgrimage with a large number of followers and instructed them in the rites. From that point onward, the Hajj became one of the five pillars of Islam.

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• 3. Cloth and Circuits

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  Two white cloths with no stitching are all that a male pilgrim wears once the Hajj begins. This state of holiness is called Ihram. It starts at the Miqat, or before reaching it, depending on where the pilgrim has come from. One cloth is wrapped around the waist and reaches below the knee. The other is draped over the left shoulder and tied at the right side. Women wear ordinary dress that meets the Islamic condition of public dress, with hands and face uncovered.

  Ihram also forbids many things. Pilgrims may not clip their nails, shave any part of the body, use perfumes, damage plants, kill animals, get married or carry weapons. Sexual relations are prohibited. Men may not cover the head, and women may not cover the face and hands. The plain garments are meant to show that rich and poor stand equal before God. Clothes create the barriers of individuality, and Ihram removes them. The cloth also recalls the shrouds worn after death.

  Tawaf is the walk of seven counterclockwise circuits around the Kaaba. The path includes the Hateem, an area on the north side of the Kaaba. Each circuit begins and ends with kissing or touching the Black Stone. When crowds make that impossible, pilgrims point toward it with the right hand. Men are encouraged to hurry through the first three circuits at a pace called Ramal, then slow down for the final four. Eating is not permitted, but drinking water is encouraged because of the risk of dehydration.

  After tawaf come two prayers at the Place of Abraham, or anywhere in the mosque when it is crowded. Pilgrims then drink from the Zamzam well, which is supplied in coolers throughout the mosque. Because of the crowds, tawaf is now also performed on the first floor and the roof. Believers describe the rite as a picture of Tawhid, the Oneness of God, and of Muslim unity.

  Sa'i follows, with seven passes between the hills of Safa and Marwah. The route was once open air. It is now enclosed by the Sacred Mosque and reached through air-conditioned tunnels. Two green pillars mark a short stretch where pilgrims run, and an internal express lane serves the elderly and disabled. Men then shave or trim their hair, and women clip a portion, which completes the Umrah. The Hajj proper begins on the 8th of Dhu'l-Hijja, when pilgrims again put on the Ihram and confirm their intention.

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• 4. Arafat to Mina

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  Tarwiyah Day, the 8th of Dhu'l-Hijja, takes its name from a narration of Ja'far al-Sadiq. He explained that Mount Arafat had no water on that day, so pilgrims carried their own from Mecca and urged each other to drink enough. Tarwiyah means to quench thirst. After the morning prayer, pilgrims go to Mina and spend the whole day there, offering the noon, afternoon, evening and night prayers. The next morning, they leave for Arafat.

  Arafat is a barren plain about 20 km east of Mecca. Pilgrims arrive there before noon on the 9th, the Day of Arafah, and stand in vigil from noon until sunset. This is called wuquf, or standing before God. They offer supplications, repent of past sins and seek God's mercy. Scholars deliver a sermon from near Jabal al-Rahmah, the Mount of Mercy, where Muhammad is said to have delivered his last sermon. At Masjid al-Namirah, pilgrims pray the noon and afternoon prayers together. A pilgrim who does not spend the afternoon on Arafat has an invalid Hajj.

  Pilgrims must leave Arafat after sunset without praying Maghrib there. They go to Muzdalifah, an area between Arafat and Mina. On arrival they pray Maghrib and Isha together. They spend the night praying and sleeping on the ground under open sky, and they gather pebbles for the next day.

  The 10th of Dhu'l-Hijja is Qurban Day. After the morning prayer, pilgrims move to Mina and throw seven stones at the largest of three pillars, Jamrat al-Aqabah. The pillars are said to represent Satan, and the other two are not stoned on this day. Pilgrims climb ramps to the multi-level Jamaraat Bridge to throw. Cattle are then sacrificed to commemorate the story of Ibrahim and Ismael. Traditionally pilgrims slaughtered the animal themselves. Many now buy a voucher in Mecca before the Hajj begins, and modern abattoirs process the meat, which is sent as charity to poor people around the world. Muslims everywhere perform similar sacrifices during the festival of Eid al-Adha.

  Male pilgrims then shave or trim their heads, a rite called Halak, and women cut the ends of their hair. On the same day or the next, pilgrims return to the Sacred Mosque for Tawaf al-Ifadah, an essential and obligatory part of Hajj. The night of the 10th is spent back at Mina.

  On the 11th and 12th, from noon to sunset, pilgrims throw seven pebbles at each of the three pillars. They may leave Mina for Mecca before sunset on the 12th. Anyone who stays on must repeat the stoning on the 13th. Before leaving Mecca, pilgrims make the farewell circuit, Tawaf al-Wadaa, since wadaa means to bid farewell. Many then travel about 450 km to Medina, to pray at the Mosque of the Prophet, which contains the tomb of Muhammad. The Quba Mosque and Masjid al-Qiblatayn are also usually visited.

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• 5. Calendar and Obligation

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  In 2026, the month of Dhu'l-Hijja runs from the 18th of May to the 15th of June. The Islamic calendar is lunar, and its year is about eleven days shorter than the Gregorian year. So the pilgrimage arrives eleven days earlier each year, sometimes ten. The 9th of Dhu'l-Hijja fell on the 5th of November in 2011 and on the 25th of October the following year. It is projected for the 23rd of April in 2029. This drift means the Hajj season can fall twice in one Gregorian year, which happens every 33 years. The last time was 2006.

  The other four pillars of Islam are the Shahadah, the oath that there is no god but Allah and that Muhammad is his Messenger, then prayer, almsgiving and fasting during Ramadan. Hajj is required once in a lifetime. The duty falls on every Muslim who is physically and financially able, and who can support their family while away. If an adult Muslim is in good health and their life and wealth are safe, they must go that same year. Delay is considered sinful unless it is caused by reasons beyond their control.

  The Umrah, or lesser pilgrimage, can be made at any time of year. It shares common rites with the Hajj, but it can be finished in under a few hours. It does not replace the Hajj. A Muslim with the means must still perform the Hajj at some other point in life. After a successful pilgrimage, a person may prefix their name with the title Al-Hajji, and Muslim society holds such people in respect.

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• 6. Equality and Tolerance

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  Hadith literature, the sayings of Muhammad, lists various merits that a pilgrim earns on completing the Hajj. Muslims go to cleanse their souls of worldly sins, and the journey is seen as a chance at self-renewal. It also reminds them of the Day of Judgment, when Muslims believe people will stand before God. Islamic scholars add a caution. In their view, Hajj should signify a Muslim's religious commitment and should not be a measure of social status.

  Malcolm X, the American activist of the Civil Rights Movement, made his Hajj in the 1960s. He wrote: "There were tens of thousands of pilgrims, from all over the world." They ranged from blue-eyed blondes to black-skinned Africans, yet all took part in the same ritual. He concluded: "America needs to understand Islam because this is the one religion that erases from its society the race problem." He said the experience forced him to rearrange much of his earlier thinking.

  A 2008 study tried to measure such effects. Titled Estimating the Impact of the Hajj: Religion and Tolerance in Islam's Global Gathering, it was conducted in conjunction with Harvard University's John F. Kennedy School of Government. It found that Hajj "increases belief in equality and harmony among ethnic groups and Islamic sects." It also found more favourable attitudes toward women, including greater acceptance of female education and employment.

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• 7. Roads and Logistics

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  Ibn Jubayr and Ibn Battuta both left detailed accounts of Hajj journeys in medieval times. In those centuries, pilgrims gathered in the big cities of Syria, Egypt and Iraq and travelled in caravans of tens of thousands, often under state patronage. Under the Mamluk Sultanate and then the Ottoman Empire, caravans were escorted by a military force and accompanied by physicians. An officer called the amir al-hajj commanded them. The escort guarded against Bedouin robbers and natural hazards and made sure pilgrims had provisions. The routes were called darb al-hajj, or pilgrimage road, and often followed ancient paths such as the King's Highway.

  Camels were the main transport until the second half of the nineteenth century. After the 1850s, steamships carried growing numbers of pilgrims by sea. Egypt introduced the first airline service for pilgrims in 1937, and air travel came to dominate. Jeddah's King Abdulaziz International Airport and Medina's Prince Mohammad Bin Abdulaziz Airport have dedicated pilgrim terminals. So do Indira Gandhi Airport in New Delhi, Rajiv Gandhi International Airport in Hyderabad, Jinnah in Karachi and Soekarno-Hatta in Jakarta.

  On the ground, the Saudi government strictly controls vehicle access to the congested ritual areas. In 2010 it began running the Al Mashaaer Al Mugaddassah Metro line as a shuttle exclusively for pilgrims between Arafat, Muzdalifa and Mina. It operates only during the days of Hajj and cuts the critical trip from Arafat to Muzdalifah to minutes. Limited capacity means not every pilgrim can ride it.

  Since the 1950s, Saudi Arabia has spent more than $100 billion on pilgrimage facilities, covering housing, transport, sanitation and health care. The Ministry of Hajj and Umrah handles most arrangements, and quotas for various countries keep numbers manageable. Pakistan offers a Haj subsidy, and Malaysia has the Tabung Haji to help with costs. For the 2014 Hajj, information desks were set up at Pakistani airports, and Urdu signs were introduced at the mosques.

  Technology has joined the effort. An e-bracelet program stores pilgrims' essential data. In 2018, a Hajj Hackathon in Jeddah drew 2,950 participants from over 100 countries. A Fatwa Robot launched in 2019 to offer religious advice. Two smartphone apps work in nine languages to help find emergency centres, holy sites, currency exchanges and accommodation. Since 2023, the ministry has used Nusuk for registration and package booking, serving applicants from 57 countries.

  The Makkah Route Initiative, running since 2018, moves visa issuance, health checks and luggage sorting to the pilgrim's departure airport. In 2019 it planned to serve around 225,000 pilgrims from Malaysia, Indonesia, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Tunisia. Pilgrims from the United States must buy a package from a licensed Hajj agency, while citizens of Gulf Cooperation Council countries need no visa. Saudi Arabia was expected to earn up to $8.5 billion from the Hajj in 2014, its largest source of revenue after oil and gas.

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• 8. Crowds, Heat and Risk

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  Foreign pilgrims numbered 58,584 in 1920 and 1,712,962 in 2012, an increase of approximately 2,824 percent. Foreign arrivals were restricted between 1940 and 1945 because of World War II. Development work at Masjid al-Haram led the authorities to restrict numbers in 2013. In the 2023 Hajj, there were 1,845,045 pilgrims in total, including about 184,000 Saudis.

  The first major modern accident came in 1990, when a tunnel stampede killed 1,462 people. Crowd-control techniques followed. In 2004, the large pillars for pebble throwing were replaced with long walls and catch basins below. In the 2015 Hajj, a stampede killed 769 people and injured 934, according to Saudi authorities. An Associated Press report totalled at least 2,411 deaths from official reports by other countries, making it the deadliest such episode to date. In 2013 and 2014, concerns arose about the spread of MERS at the mass gathering, though Saudi Health Minister Abdullah Al-Rabia said no cases had been detected among pilgrims. In November 2017, Saudi authorities banned selfies at the two holy sites.

  In February 2020, Saudi Arabia temporarily banned foreign pilgrims from entering Mecca and Medina to prevent the spread of COVID-19. In June, it announced that only "very limited numbers" of pilgrims already resident in the country would take part. The Wall Street Journal reported in July 2020 that the five-day event in Mecca was cut to fewer than 10,000 people. Similar restrictions applied in 2021, but women were permitted to attend without a male guardian, a mahram, provided they went in a trustworthy group.

  The average pilgrim contributes about 60.5 kg of CO2-equivalent per day. The 2011 season produced an estimated 3.0 million tonnes. Long-haul air travel accounts for 60% of the greenhouse gas emissions created by Hajj. Projected temperature rises of 1.5-2 degrees could bring "extreme danger" from heat and humidity, especially to the many elderly pilgrims. In the summer of 2024, Saudi officials reported treating more than 2,000 people for heat stress. By the 21st of June, 550 people had died of heat stroke, at least 320 of them from Egypt. By the 2nd of July, the Saudi government said that 1,301 people had died. It revoked the licenses of 16 travel agencies that helped unauthorized pilgrims reach Saudi Arabia.

  In 2011, Husna Ahmad created the first green guide to Hajj. In 2019, Saudi Arabia launched an environment-friendly Hajj initiative under the environmental technologist Magda Abu Ras. One part, Hajj without Plastic, is implemented in 30 camps in Mina, where pilgrims are encouraged to sort their waste. The proceeds go to charitable purposes.

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