Greco-Italian War
On the 4th of February 1939, Benito Mussolini addressed the Fascist Grand Council and declared Greece to be a vital enemy of Italy. This speech outlined his belief that Italy was imprisoned by France and the United Kingdom and needed territory to break free. The regime sought hegemony in the Mediterranean, Danubian, Balkan region with designs for an empire stretching from Gibraltar to Hormuz. In 1923, Mussolini used the murder of an Italian general on the Greco-Albanian border as a pretext to bombard Corfu. He occupied the Ionian Islands which were considered part of Italy's sphere of influence. By April 1939, Italian troops invaded Albania and occupied most of the country within three days. This action provided a foothold for expansion into the Balkans and living space for overpopulation. The fascist government planned protectorates over Austria, Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria to surround its European sphere. Greek foreign policy after 1923 aimed at preserving the status quo due to weakness and isolation. Relations between Athens and Rome deteriorated rapidly following the Albanian invasion. Tensions mounted as anti-Greek campaigns appeared in the Italian press combined with provocative actions along the border.
On the 15th of August 1940, the Greek light cruiser Elli sat at anchor in Tinos harbour during the Dormition of the Theotokos holiday. An Italian submarine named Delfino fired torpedoes that sank the vessel under orders from Mussolini and Navy chief Domenico Cavagnari. The attack allowed submarine strikes against neutral shipping despite international law. De Vecchi ordered the Delfino commander to sink everything in sight near Syros giving the impression war was imminent. Another Greek steamship was bombarded by Italian planes in Crete on the same day. No one was fooled by the official story claiming an unknown nationality carried out the attack. Ambassador Emanuele Grazzi wrote that the attack united a people deeply riven by political differences. The incident imbued the population with firm resolve to resist aggression. Metaxas remained unsure of Italy's true intentions wavering between optimism and prudent rationalism. Neither leader realized the ambassador was kept in his post deliberately to conceal aggressive plans. The sinking outraged the Greek people and transformed diplomatic relations into open hostility within days.
Italy attacked Greece from Albania on the 28th of October 1940 after issuing an ultimatum demanding free passage for troops. Prime Minister Ioannis Metaxas rejected the demand with the words then it is war. The Italian forces were badly armed and poorly commanded yet encountered unexpectedly tenacious resistance. They penetrated only a few kilometers into Greek territory before halting at the Kalamas river. Mountainous and muddy terrain hindered movement while poor roads delayed advances significantly. By the 13th of November, Italian units had reached their deepest point at Margariti but could not advance further. On the 8th of November, Visconti Prasca was relieved of overall command in Albania and relegated to front duties. General Ubaldo Soddu assumed leadership and recommended taking defensive positions while awaiting reinforcements. Mussolini consented to the change as evidence mounted that the offensive had failed. The scheduled amphibious assault on Corfu did not materialize due to bad weather conditions. Italian tanks faced swamps of the Kalamas river which formed a major obstacle even to infantry movement. By the 13th of November, Greek forces once again stood along the entire length of the Kalamas river.
On the 14th of November 1940, the Greek army launched a counter-offensive pushing Italian forces back across the border. III Corps attacked with twenty battalions and thirty-seven artillery batteries toward Korçë plateau without prior artillery barrage. The surprise attack allowed Greeks to force breaches in Italian positions between 14 and the 16th of November. On the 22nd of November, the city of Korçë fell to the 9th Division after Italians retreated toward the Devoll valley. TSDM captured the entire Korçë plateau by the 27th of November suffering six hundred dead and two thousand three hundred wounded. I Corps moved north into Albania along the Drinos river between 24 and the 30th of November capturing Himarë on the 22nd of December. II Corps advanced in the direction of Frashër which it took early in December. The Lioumbas Detachment captured Sarandë renamed Porto Edda after Edda Mussolini on the 6th of December. Further east, the 2nd Division seized the Suhë Pass after fierce struggle from 1 to the 4th of December. By January 1941, the advance culminated in the Capture of Klisura Pass several dozen kilometers inside Albanian territory.
On the 6th of April 1941, German troops invaded northern Greece under Operation Marita altering the course of the campaign. Hitler decided that increased British intervention represented a threat to Germany's rear while build-up accelerated after Bulgaria joined the Axis on the 1st of March 1941. Greek forces had deployed the vast majority of men into a stalemate with Italy leaving the Metaxas Line with only one-third strength. British ground forces began arriving in Greece the next day causing Hitler to aid his Axis ally. Greek and British forces in northern Greece were overwhelmed as Germans advanced rapidly west and south. In Albania, the Greek army made a belated withdrawal to avoid being cut off by advancing German units. The Greeks surrendered to German troops on the 20th of April 1941 and to Italians on the 23rd of April. Greece was subsequently occupied by Bulgarian, German, and Italian troops controlling the entire country. The front stabilized in February 1941 when Italians reinforced the Albanian front to twenty-eight divisions against fourteen Greek divisions.
Italian equipment proved poor quality and of little use while morale remained low throughout the campaign. Only ten percent of expected lorries arrived for the invasion despite plans calling for seventeen hundred vehicles. Three-regiment divisions changed to two-regiment binary divisions increasing administrative overhead without improving effectiveness. Tanks and motor vehicles were slow to arrive and inferior to potential enemies. The Regia Aeronautica operated sixty-four Fiat CR.42 Falco biplanes alongside outdated CR.32 Freccia models. Bombers included wooden CANT Z.1007s and Savoia-Marchetti SM.81 Pipistrello veterans of the Spanish War. Greek divisions held up to more infantry than Italian binary divisions with slightly more medium artillery but no tanks. Most Greek equipment dated from World War I coming from Belgium Austria Poland and France under Axis occupation. Spare parts and ammunition became unavailable due to blockades cutting off supply lines. Serviceable ground attack aircraft included nine Breguet 19 two-seater bombers and fifteen Henschel Hs 126 reconnaissance planes. The Royal Hellenic Navy possessed an elderly cruiser named Elli plus four obsolete destroyers and six old submarines.
The Italian army suffered one hundred two thousand sixty-four combat casualties including thirteen thousand seven hundred fifty-five dead. Another three thousand nine hundred soldiers went missing while fifty thousand others sustained wounds during fighting. Greece lost over eighty-three thousand five hundred men in combat with thirteen thousand three hundred twenty-five killed. Twelve hundred Greeks disappeared during the conflict while forty-two thousand received injuries requiring medical care. Losses were mutually costly yet Greeks had far less ability than Italians to replenish men and material. They lacked capacity to rotate out exhausted units unlike their opponents who could bring fresh troops forward. By March 1941, Greek forces were dangerously low on ammunition and other essential supplies. An Italian officer captured a Greek commander who stated they would lose the war but give a spanking. The final surrender occurred after German intervention overwhelmed remaining defensive positions across northern Greece. Greek resistance ended when Allied forces withdrew following rapid Axis advances through Macedonia and Thrace regions.
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Common questions
When did the Greco-Italian War begin and what triggered it?
The Greco-Italian War began on the 28th of October 1940 after Italy issued an ultimatum demanding free passage for troops. Prime Minister Ioannis Metaxas rejected this demand with the words then it is war which initiated hostilities.
Who ordered the sinking of the Greek cruiser Elli in August 1940?
Benito Mussolini and Navy chief Domenico Cavagnari ordered the Italian submarine Delfino to sink the Greek light cruiser Elli. This attack occurred on the 15th of August 1940 during the Dormition of the Theotokos holiday in Tinos harbour.
Where did Italian forces halt their advance into Greece by November 1940?
Italian units reached their deepest point at Margariti but could not advance further than the Kalamas river by the 13th of November 1940. Mountainous terrain and muddy conditions hindered movement while poor roads delayed advances significantly along the border.
What happened to the city of Korçë during the Greek counter-offensive in November 1940?
The city of Korçë fell to the 9th Division on the 22nd of November 1940 after Italians retreated toward the Devoll valley. The TSDM captured the entire Korçë plateau by the 27th of November suffering six hundred dead and two thousand three hundred wounded.
When did German troops invade northern Greece and alter the course of the Greco-Italian War?
German troops invaded northern Greece under Operation Marita on the 6th of April 1941 altering the course of the campaign. Hitler decided that increased British intervention represented a threat to Germany's rear while build-up accelerated after Bulgaria joined the Axis on the 1st of March 1941.