England in the Late Middle Ages
Henry III took the throne in 1216 while much of his continental holdings were occupied by French forces. Barons rebelled against him during what became known as the First Barons' War. William Marshall served as protector for the nine-year-old king and won victories at Lincoln and Dover in 1217. The Treaty of Lambeth forced Louis to renounce his claims to England. Henry III struggled with baronial resistance throughout his reign from 1216 until 1272. He reissued Magna Carta and the Charter of the Forest to raise £45,000 through an assembly of barons, bishops and magnates. Simon de Montfort led barons who forced Henry to agree to the Provisions of Oxford. This agreement required substantial reforms in exchange for paying off royal debts. Edward I inherited the throne in 1272 after his father's death. He organized inherited territories and gained control over Wales and most of Scotland. His son Edward II was defeated at Bannockburn in 1314 and lost Scottish territory. Edward II faced challenges from discontented barons and his favorite Piers Gaveston. Parliament exiled Gaveston twice before he returned and was executed after a mock trial. Thomas, 2nd Earl of Lancaster led Ordainers who reformed the royal household. Edward II abdicated under pressure from Queen Isabella and Roger Mortimer. He died at Berkeley Castle where a red-hot poker was thrust into his bowels. Edward III took control in 1330 after a coup ended four years of Isabella and Mortimer rule.
Edward III claimed the French throne following disputes over Gascony status. The war began when Philip VI declared English lands forfeit after Edward refused to extradite Robert III of Artois. Edward borrowed heavily from banking houses like the Bardi and Peruzzi merchants. William de la Pole advanced him £110,000 while Parliament granted £300,000 for further concessions. The Battle of Sluys destroyed almost the entire French fleet. Edward invaded from Low Countries using chevauchée raids that plundered and destroyed countryside. Philip VI's government became discredited as these extended raids threatened vassal loyalty. The crushing defeat at Crécy left Edward free to capture Calais. Prince Edward led destructive chevauchées starting from Bordeaux through Armagnac and Languedoc. The Battle of Poitiers resulted in capturing John II of France with a four million écus ransom promised by the Second Treaty of London. Charles V resumed hostilities when Prince Edward refused summons as Duke of Aquitaine. Bertrand Du Guesclin adopted Fabian tactics avoiding major field forces while capturing towns. The disastrous Battle of La Rochelle reversed English dominance at sea. Henry V won victory at Agincourt on the 25th of October 1415 despite being outnumbered and low on supplies. He recaptured much of Normandy before dying possibly from dysentery in 1422. Joan of Arc helped lift the siege of Orleans leading to Dauphin coronation at Reims. The French retook Rouen and Bordeaux winning Formigny in 1450 and Castillon in 1453. This left England with only Calais and its surrounding Pale in continental territory.
The plague arrived by ship from Gascony to Melcombe in Dorset shortly before the 24th of June 1348. Disease spread rapidly across south-west England reaching Bristol then London in autumn 1348. Conditions in London were ideal for plague transmission with narrow streets flowing with sewage. Houses were overcrowded and poorly ventilated allowing rapid disease spread. By March 1349 the Black Death moved haphazardly across southern England. A second front opened when plague reached the Humber spreading both north and south. York was hit in May while summer months ravaged northern counties like Durham and Cumberland. Pestilence proved less virulent during winter months and spread more slowly. The disease survived winter 1348-49 but ended by December 1349 after approximately 500 days traversing the entire country. Between a third to more than half of Edward III's subjects died from the outbreak. The king passed Ordinance of Labourers and Statute of Labourers responding to labor shortages. These repressive measures caused resentment among surviving populations. Economic growth faltered at end of thirteenth century due to overpopulation, land shortages and depleted soils. The Great Famine shook English economy severely causing population growth to cease. First Black Death outbreak in 1348 killed around half English population. Those peasants who survived famine, plague and disease found situation much improved according to Rodney Hilton. Period 1350-1450 became golden age of prosperity with plentiful land and high wages. Serfdom had all but disappeared allowing people to move about and rise higher in life. Younger sons and women especially benefited from these conditions. Population growth resumed later causing peasants to face deprivation and famine again.
Richard Duke of York's attitude toward marriage contract surrendering Maine contributed to his Lord Lieutenant appointment in Ireland. This removed him from English and French politics where he influenced as descendant of Lionel and Edmund. He recruited militarily returning to England conscious of Humphrey's fate at Beaufort hands. Armed conflict avoided initially because Richard lacked aristocratic support forcing allegiance oath to Henry. When Henry suffered mental breakdown Richard became regent but Margaret showed open enmity especially after male heir birth. Court party reasserted authority when Henry's sanity returned. Richard of York and Nevilles defeated Percys at First Battle of St Albans killing possibly fifty men including Somerset and Percy lords. Feuds proved impossible to reconcile with Clifford's son later murdering Richard's son Edmund. York, Salisbury and Warwick fled abroad threatened with treason charges. They returned winning Northampton capturing Henry then surprising Parliament by claiming throne. Act of Accord stated Henry remained monarch for lifetime succeeded by York. Margaret found disregarding her son's claims unacceptable continuing conflict. York killed at Wakefield while head displayed at Micklegate Bar alongside sons Edmund and Salisbury beheaded. Edward Earl of March welcomed enthusiastically by London after Scottish queen Mary of Guelders provided support. Edward crowned Edward IV consolidating position through Towton victory. Warwick and George Duke of Clarence helped depose Edward returning Henry to throne 1470. Edward and brother Richard Duke of Gloucester fled then returned next year. Clarence switched sides at Barnet leading Neville brothers death. Tewkesbury battle brought demise of last male Beaufort line. Battlefield execution of Edward Prince of Wales and murder of Henry VI extinguished House of Lancaster. Edward V and Richard III ruled 1483-85 before foreign mercenaries invaded led by Henry Tudor 1485. Richard killed at Bosworth Field allowing Tudor to assume throne as Henry VII founding Tudor dynasty.
Edward I reestablished royal power in 1272 overhauling finances appealing to broader English elite using Parliament authorizing new taxes. He heard petitions concerning local governance abuses through this political balance. Savage civil wars broke out during 1320s collapsing government under Edward II. Edward III restored order with majority nobility help exercising power through exchequer common bench and royal household. Government became better organized on larger scale than ever before. King's formerly peripatetic chancery took permanent residence in Westminster by fourteenth century. Edward used Parliament more frequently handling administration legislating raising necessary war taxes. Royal lands and incomes diminished requiring increasingly frequent taxation supporting French wars. Elaborate chivalric events united supporters around knightly symbols including Order of Garter growth. Grand tournaments and round table events reflected developing chivalry ideals throughout fourteenth century. Power of major noble magnates grew considerably by time Richard II deposed 1399. Powerful rulers like Henry IV contained them but minority Henry VI allowed control of country. Magnates depended income from rent trade maintaining paid armed retainers sporting controversial liveries buying gentry support. System dubbed bastard feudalism influenced House Lords at Parliament king council. Gentry wealthier townsmen exercised increasing influence House Commons opposing tax raises for French wars. Major financial difficulties plagued English government 1430s-1440s leading crisis 1450 popular revolt Jack Cade leadership. Law order deteriorated crown unable intervene factional fighting between different nobles followers resulting Wars Roses savage escalation violence. Captured enemies executed family lands attainted whole noble lines extinguished by Henry VII throne 1485. Edward I called The English Justinian due to legal reforms though debated whether reformer or autocrat responding events. Statutes Mortmain prohibited land donation Church asserting Crown rights expense traditional feudal privileges. Uniform administration justice raised income codified legal system emphasizing Parliament common law role through significant legislation. Survey local government codified laws originating Magna Carta Statute Westminster 1275 enacted economic reforms wool exports taking customs nearly £10,000 yearly.
French Cluniac order became fashionable introducing houses England late eleventh century. Augustinians spread quickly beginning twelfth century while Cistercians reached England later creating austere monastic rules building great abbeys Rievaulx Fountains. Over 600 monastic communities existed England 1215 new endowments slowed thirteenth century creating long-term financial problems. Dominican Franciscan friars arrived 1220s establishing 150 friaries end thirteenth century becoming popular particularly towns heavily influencing local preaching. Religious military orders acquired possessions including Templars Teutonic Order Hospitallers across Europe from twelfth century. Pilgrimages popular throughout Middle Ages traveling short distances shrines particular churches doing penance seeking illness relief. Some traveled further distant sites Britain few cases onto continent. Major shrines included Thomas Becket Canterbury Edward Confessor Westminster Hugh Lincoln William York Edmund Rich Pontigny Abbey France Richard Chichester Thomas Cantilupe Hereford St Osmund Salisbury John Bridlington. Challenges emerged traditional Church teachings 1380s resulting John Wycliffe Oxford University member teachings. Scripture best guide understanding God intentions superficial liturgy nature combined wealth abuses senior churchmen government distracted study. Loose movement gentry members pursued ideas after Wycliffe death 1384 attempting Parliamentary bill 1395 rapidly condemned authorities termed Lollardy. English bishops charged controlling countering trend disrupting Lollard preachers enforcing suitable sermons local churches. Combating Lollard teachings became key political issue early fifteenth century championed Henry IV Lancastrian followers using powers church state combat heresy.
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Common questions
When did Henry III take the throne and what were his main challenges?
Henry III took the throne in 1216 while facing baronial resistance and French occupation of continental holdings. He struggled with rebellion throughout his reign from 1216 until 1272 and reissued Magna Carta to raise funds.
What caused the Black Death outbreak in England during Edward III's reign?
The plague arrived by ship from Gascony to Melcombe in Dorset shortly before the 24th of June 1348. Disease spread rapidly across south-west England reaching London in autumn 1348 due to overcrowded houses and narrow streets flowing with sewage.
How did the Peasants Revolt end in 1381 under Richard II?
William Walworth Lord Mayor of London attacked and killed belligerent Wat Tyler at Smithfield. Richard seized initiative shouting You shall have no captain but me defusing situation deliberately then pursued captured and executed rebellion leaders revoking all concessions.
Which battle marked the end of the House of Lancaster in the Wars of the Roses?
Tewkesbury battle brought demise of last male Beaufort line. Battlefield execution of Edward Prince of Wales and murder of Henry VI extinguished House of Lancaster allowing Henry Tudor to assume throne as Henry VII founding Tudor dynasty after Richard was killed at Bosworth Field in 1485.
When did religious orders like Dominicans arrive in England and how many friaries existed?
Dominican Franciscan friars arrived 1220s establishing 150 friaries by the end thirteenth century becoming popular particularly towns heavily influencing local preaching. Over 600 monastic communities existed England 1215 new endowments slowed thirteenth century creating long-term financial problems.