Curaçao
Curaçao is a Dutch Caribbean island country about 65 km north of Venezuela, and in 1929 that short distance proved dangerous. A Venezuelan rebel commander named Rafael Simón Urbina arrived with 250 soldiers and captured the island's fort. His men took weapons, ammunition and the island's treasury. They also seized the governor, Leonardus Albertus Fruytier, and hauled him off to Venezuela on a stolen American ship called Maracaibo. Back in the Netherlands, Fruytier was criticized, and he had to resign. He settled for a post as chief inspector in Maastricht. The Dutch responded by increasing their military presence on the island.
Why would rebels target a place of only 444 km2? Spain once dismissed it as worthless, so what changed? How did one harbor draw merchants, pirates, navies and oil companies, and what did all that attention do to the people who lived there? The answers begin with a priest, a salary and a document in Caracas.
On the 9th of December 1595, a priest named Francisco Montesinos signed over power of attorney to a Caracas resident named Pedro Gutiérrez de Lugo. The purpose was practical. Montesinos wanted someone to collect his church salary from the royal treasury of King Philip II of Spain. The document calls him vicar of "the Yslas de Curasao, Aruba and Bonaire". The city registry of Caracas still holds it as one of the earliest written mentions of Curaçao.
The islands he served had been inhabited long before he arrived. Arawak and Caquetio Amerindians lived on Curaçao, and their ancestors had crossed from the South American mainland, probably hundreds of years before any European saw it.
The first Europeans on record were members of a Spanish expedition led by Alonso de Ojeda in 1499. The Spaniards cared little for the island itself. They enslaved most of the Caquetios and sent them to work in the Hispaniola colony. In 1515, almost all of the roughly 2,000 Caquetios still living on the island were also shipped to Hispaniola as slaves.
Spain officially settled Curaçao in 1527 and ran it as an extension of Venezuela through the 1500s. Settlers brought horses, sheep, goats, pigs and cattle from Europe and other Spanish colonies. Sheep, goats and cattle mostly thrived. Cattle roamed freely across the kunuku plantations and savannahs, herded by both Caquetios and Spaniards. Other imports fared worse, so the Spanish also adopted Caquetio crops and farming methods.
Yields still disappointed, and the salt mines held no precious metals. Spain's verdict was a nickname, "the useless island".
As the conquest of the mainland advanced, Spain slowly withdrew. The Spanish population shrank while the Caquetio population stabilized and then began to grow. In the last decades of Spanish occupation, the island worked as one large cattle ranch. Spaniards lived around Santa Barbara, Santa Ana and the villages of the west, while the Caquetios are thought to have been scattered across the whole island.
Spanish maps from 1525 spell the island Curaçote, Curasaote and Curasaore. One explanation for the name is that Curaçao was what the Indigenous people called themselves, and early Spanish accounts do call them "Indios Curaçaos". A map made in Antwerp in 1562 by Hieronymus Cock labels the island Qúracao.
A story with no documentation offers a different origin. Sailors with scurvy, the tale goes, were left ashore, and some recovered, probably by eating fruit rich in vitamin C. The Portuguese supposedly then called the place Ilha da Curação, and the Spanish called it Isla de la Curación. By the 17th century most maps simply read Curaçao or Curazao, and Dutch ships were about to arrive.
In August 1634, the Spanish surrendered at San Juan to Admiral Johann van Walbeeck and the Dutch West India Company. The invasion was part of the Eighty Years' War between the Republic of the Netherlands and Spain. About 30 Spaniards and many Indigenous people were deported to Santa Ana de Coro in Venezuela. About 30 Taíno families were allowed to stay, and Dutch colonists began settling.
The company founded Willemstad that same year on the banks of the Schottegat. This inlet formed a natural harbour that proved ideal for trade. Commerce and shipping became the island's main activities, along with piracy. Salt mining later grew into a major industry, because salt was a lucrative export.
The Dutch built forts to guard against foreign powers, privateers and pirates. Six of the best-preserved still stand, from Fort Amsterdam in 1635 to Rif Fort in 1828. In 1957 the Van der Valk Plaza Curaçao hotel was built on top of the Waterfort. Across the harbour entrance, Rif Fort now holds restaurants and shops, and a resort and casino opened beside it in 2009.
A Jewish congregation on the island dates to 1651, making it the oldest active one in the Americas. Sephardic Jews fleeing persecution in Spain and Portugal sought safe haven in Dutch Brazil and the Dutch Republic, and many settled in Curaçao. They contributed to its civil society, its culture and its prosperity. Their synagogue was completed in 1732 on the site of an earlier one, and it is the oldest in the Americas in continuous use. Both Sephardic and Ashkenazi communities exist, and about 300 Jewish people live on the island. In 1674 the island became a free port.
On the 11th of May 1678, a week after leaving Saint Kitts, French Admiral Jean II d'Estrées made a serious navigational error. He was planning an attack on Curaçao during the Franco-Dutch War. His fleet counted 12 men-of-war, three fire ships, two transports, a hospital ship and 12 privateers. Reefs off the Las Aves archipelago destroyed seven of the men-of-war and two other ships.
From 1662 the Dutch West India Company made Curaçao a centre of the Atlantic slave trade. Captives were often brought from West Africa to the island and then sold elsewhere in the Caribbean and the Spanish Main. Many Dutch colonists grew affluent from this trade. They built the impressive colonial buildings of Willemstad, and the city is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
In 1795, up to 4,000 enslaved people in northwest Curaçao rose up under the leaders Tula Rigaud, Louis Mercier, Bastian Karpata and Pedro Wakao. More than 1,000 took part in extended gunfights. After a month, the slave owners managed to suppress the revolt.
The Dutch abolished slavery in 1863, which pushed the economy toward wage labour. Some islanders emigrated to places such as Cuba to work on sugarcane plantations. Others had nowhere to go and stayed on under the tenant farmer system, leasing land from their former masters.
Simón Bolívar was among the political refugees from the mainland who regrouped on Curaçao. The island's closeness to South America meant its people interacted with coastal cultures for well over a century after the Netherlands won independence from Spain. The Netherlands built economic ties with the Viceroyalty of New Granada, which covered present-day Colombia and Venezuela. In the 19th century, Curaçaoans such as Manuel Piar and Luis Brión played prominent roles in the independence wars of both Venezuela and Colombia. Nineteenth-century neighbourhoods in Willemstad even resemble the architecture of Coro, in Venezuela's Falcón State, which is also a World Heritage Site.
British forces twice occupied Curaçao during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars. The first occupation lasted from 1800 to 1803 and the second from 1807 to 1815. After the Treaty of London, stable Dutch rule returned, and the island joined the colony of Curaçao and Dependencies.
The British years left their mark on speech. Students on Curaçao, Aruba and Bonaire had been taught mostly in Spanish until the early 19th century, when the British occupied all three islands. When Dutch rule resumed in 1815, Spanish teaching came back. Even so, officials already noted that English was widely used. Spanish had become important in the 18th century because of close economic ties with the Spanish territories of what are now Venezuela and Colombia.
The 2023 census found that 78% of residents spoke Papiamentu most at home. Spanish followed at 8.4%, Dutch at 7.9% and English at 3.8%, with other languages making up 2%. Dutch, Papiamentu and English are official, yet Dutch alone serves for administration and legal matters. Most people speak at least two of the four main languages, and many speak all four.
Papiamentu is a Portuguese-based creole with African, Dutch and Spanish influences, spoken at every level of society. Primary schools adopted it as a teaching language in 1993, which makes Curaçao one of a handful of places that use a creole to teach basic literacy. Dutch, by contrast, was little spoken outside the colonial administration until the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Efforts to bring in bilingual Dutch and Papiamentu education began in the late 19th century.
During slavery, enslaved Afro-Curaçaoans spoke Guene to keep their conversations hidden from their enslavers. The language is now extinct. It survives only in songs and popular sayings, where it stands as a symbol of Afro-Curaçaoan identity.
Enslaved West Africans also carried the tales of Anansi to the island, and those tales form the basis of Papiamentu literature. Magic realism, in narrative technique and metaphor, tends to dominate Curaçaoan writing. The first published work in Papiamentu was Atardi, a poem by Joseph Sickman Corsen, printed in the newspaper La Cruz in 1905. The oral traditions of the Arawak people, by contrast, are lost.
In 1914, oil was discovered at Mene Grande, a town in Venezuela's Maracaibo Basin, and Curaçao's economy changed dramatically. Shell and Exxon both held drilling concessions in Venezuela, which kept crude flowing to refineries on Aruba and Curaçao. Venezuelan crude was cheap to produce. Both companies were vertically integrated, controlling pumping, transport, refining and sales. The refineries sold in global markets, and the margin between production costs and revenue gave them a safety net against inefficiency.
A small accident in 1936 showed how flammable the harbour had become. The crew of MS Colombia, anchored in the Schottegat, threw a burning bale of cotton overboard. The oil floating on the water caught fire, and it took days to bring under control. Houses were evacuated, but nobody died.
The Second World War turned the refineries into a strategic prize. In 1940, before Germany invaded the Netherlands, the British occupied Curaçao and the French occupied Aruba. Venezuela was alarmed, since these islands sit at the entrance to the Gulf of Venezuela and had historically served as bases for incursions against its territory.
US troops occupied Curaçao in 1941 and built the military airport Hato. They expected Axis submarines and possibly long-distance German bombers. The United States also worried about a German invasion of the continental US launched with help from German settlers in South America.
In 1942, German submarines besieged the port of Willemstad on several occasions under Operation Neuland. The port was one of the main fuel sources for Allied operations. When the Germans returned that August, they attacked a tanker and then slipped away after a Dutch shore battery opened fire. The United States Navy created the Fourth Fleet to counter enemy naval operations in the Caribbean and South Atlantic. The US Army sent aircraft and personnel to protect the refineries and bolster the Venezuelan Air Force.
Shell's refinery ran at a significant loss from 1975 to 1979, and again from 1982 to 1985. In 1985, after 70 years, Royal Dutch Shell decided to leave Curaçao. The timing was harsh. Tourism from Venezuela had collapsed after the devaluation of the bolivar, and the Antillean Airline Company and the Curaçao Dry Dock Company were suffering from a slowdown in transport.
Shell sold the refinery to a local government consortium for one Antillean guilder. Lawsuits have since alleged that the ageing plant's emissions, including sulphur dioxide and particulate matter, far exceed safety standards. The consortium leased it to the Venezuelan state oil company PDVSA, whose lease expired in 2019. The facility employs 1,000 people. Average carbon dioxide emissions on the island reached 52 tonnes per person in 2018, the second highest in the world.
A series of riots in 1969 shook Willemstad. In 1954, Curaçao and other Dutch Caribbean colonies had been joined to form the Netherlands Antilles. Many islanders resented a relationship that seemed subordinate to the Netherlands, along with ongoing racial discrimination. Layoffs at the Shell refinery then pushed unemployment up.
Rioters set fire to downtown Willemstad and the bankers' mansions, and a state of emergency followed. Dutch Navy marines from the local base moved against a rebellion led by charismatic politicians such as Papa Godett and Stanley Browne. Two people died, many were injured, and Willemstad suffered severe property and infrastructure damage. The Dutch government answered with far-reaching reforms. Afro-Curaçaoans gained greater influence over political and economic life, and Papiamentu gained prominence.
The path to country status was slow. Curaçao was due to become a country within the Kingdom of the Netherlands on the 1st of July 2007. On the 28th of November 2006, the island council rejected a clarification memorandum, and the change was delayed. A new council ratified the agreement on the 9th of July 2007. The date was reset to the 15th of December 2008. A non-binding referendum on the 15th of May 2009 drew 52% support.
The Netherlands Antilles dissolved on the 10th of October 2010, and Curaçao became a country within the kingdom. The kingdom kept responsibility for defence and foreign policy. It also took on oversight of the island's finances under an agreed debt-relief arrangement. The King of the Netherlands is head of state, represented locally by a governor, and the Prime Minister of Curaçao is head of government.
Gerrit Schotte was the first prime minister. Stanley Betrian succeeded him ad interim in 2012. Daniel Hodge became the third prime minister on the 31st of December 2012 and led a demissionary cabinet until the 7th of June 2013, when a cabinet under Ivar Asjes was sworn in.
Autonomy has not meant independence from Dutch help. The Netherlands has intervened to ensure that parliamentary elections are held and to help finalize accurate budgets. In July 2017, Prime Minister Eugene Rhuggenaath said he wanted Curaçao to take full responsibility for its own affairs. He also asked for more cooperation from the Netherlands. The Dutch government replied by recalling that it had helped with oil refinery negotiations with the Chinese "on numerous occasions".
The COVID-19 pandemic forced austerity in 2020. To qualify for additional Dutch aid, Curaçao had to cut spending, including a 12.5% cut in benefits for civil servants. On the 24th of June 2020, civil servants and waste collectors from Selikor marched to Fort Amsterdam and demanded to speak with Rhuggenaath. The demonstration turned into a riot, and police cleared the square with tear gas. Looting later hit the city centre, 48 people were arrested, and the districts of Punda and Otrobanda were locked down for the night. A general curfew ran from 20:30 to 06:00.
Christoffelberg, the island's highest point, rises 372 m above sea level on a landscape of hills and dry scrub. Curaçao sits on the continental shelf of South America, and just off its southeast coast lies Klein Curaçao, an uninhabited islet with a long beach. The main island has 37 beaches, most on the south side.
Under the water north of the island, the seabed drops steeply within 60 m of shore. This drop-off is called the blue edge. Along 20 km of the southern coast, the Curaçao Underwater Marine Park gives divers and snorkelers visibility of up to 30 m.
The rock beneath tells a far older story. The Curaçao Lava Formation holds 5 km of pillow lavas with some basalt intrusions, and the lavas date to about 89 million years ago, in the Cretaceous period. Christoffelberg and the Zevenbergen, or Seven Hills, expose a different layer called the Knip Formation, made of deepwater sands and fine clays capped by chert. Limestone caps formed later, before the whole sequence rose above the sea.
Only about 450 mm of rain falls in an average year, because the island lies north of the Intertropical Convergence Zone. Rainfall swings with El Niño and La Niña. A strong El Niño year may bring as little as 200 mm, while powerful La Niña years can bring as much as 1150 mm. January is the coolest month, averaging 26.6 °C, and September is the hottest, at 29.1 °C. The trade winds cool the island by day and warm it at night.
No hurricane has made landfall on Curaçao since the US National Hurricane Center began tracking them. Storms still leave a mark. In 2010, Tomas passed as a tropical storm and dropped as much as 265 mm of rain in a day, nearly half the island's annual total. Its flooding killed two people and caused damage of over NAƒ50 million, or US$28 million.
The white-tailed deer is the island's most notable animal and its only deer. It has been protected since 1926. An estimated 200 remain, and about 70% of the herd lives in Christoffel Park at the west end. Some individuals reach 6 ft in length and weigh as much as 300 lb.
Several species of iguana sun themselves across the island, and unlike on many other islands, people still hunt them for food. Sea turtles breed in inlets along the west end of the north shore, where Shete Boka Park protects them and rangers lead visitors to see them. Flamingos, herons and the black-and-orange turpial live near ponds and coasts. The vegetation includes cacti, thorny shrubs and watapana trees, plus the drought-tolerant orchid Brassavola nodosa.
Below ground, a network of aquatic species once thrived, including relictual crustaceans and many found nowhere else. None has been detected since the 1970s. Researchers suspect habitat destruction and groundwater contamination from oil and discharge during the late 1900s.
Pastechi is the ubiquitous breakfast on Curaçao: a fried pastry filled with cheese, tuna, chicken or ground meat. Local food is called Krioyo, and its flavours and techniques echo Caribbean and Latin American cooking. Popular dishes include stobá, a stew made with ingredients such as papaya, beef or goat, and guiambo, a soup of okra and seafood. Kadushi is a cactus soup, and funchi is a cornmeal paste.
Holidays bring hallaca and pekelé, made from salt cod. Weddings call for sweets such as kokada, made with coconut, ko'i lechi, made with condensed milk and sugar, and tentalaria, made with peanuts. The island's famous liqueur was born when a local experimented with the rinds of the citrus fruit called laraha.
The Queen Emma Bridge, a pontoon bridge 168 m long, lets pedestrians walk between the Punda and Otrobanda districts. It first opened in 1888, and the current bridge was installed in 1939. Locals call it "Our Swinging Old Lady" because it swings open for passing ships. The Queen Juliana Bridge opened in 1974 to carry motor traffic between the same districts, which freed the older bridge for pedestrians. At 185 ft above the sea, it is one of the highest bridges in the Caribbean.
The Kaya Kaya festival in the Otrobanda neighbourhood of Willemstad has filled the streets with murals. Football and baseball, however, are the most popular sports.
In 2004 the Little League Baseball team from Willemstad won the world title against the United States champion from Thousand Oaks, California. The lineup included Jurickson Profar and Jonathan Schoop. Andruw Jones, Ozzie Albies and Kenley Jansen, all from Curaçao, have made multiple Major League Baseball All-Star Game appearances. Jones was elected to the Hall of Fame in 2026. A 2010 documentary, Boys of Summer, follows the Pabao Little League All-Stars through the 2008 Little League World Series.
The national football team won the 2017 Caribbean Cup by beating Jamaica in the final, which qualified it for that year's CONCACAF Gold Cup. In 2019 it travelled to Thailand, played in the King's Cup for the first time and won it by beating Vietnam in the final. In 2025, Curaçao qualified for the 2026 FIFA World Cup, becoming the smallest nation in history to do so.
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Common questions
Where is Curaçao located?
Curaçao is an island country in the southern Caribbean Sea, about 65 km north of Venezuela and 80 km southeast of Aruba. It is the largest of the ABC islands, with an area of 444 km2, and its capital is Willemstad.
Why did Spain call Curaçao the useless island?
Spain called Curaçao "the useless island" because its agricultural yields were disappointing and its salt mines held no precious metals. In its last decades of Spanish rule, the island served as a large cattle ranch.
When did the Dutch take control of Curaçao?
The Dutch West India Company under Admiral Johann van Walbeeck invaded Curaçao in 1634, and the Spanish surrendered at San Juan in August. The company founded Willemstad that same year on the banks of the Schottegat.
When did Curaçao become a country within the Kingdom of the Netherlands?
Curaçao became a country within the Kingdom of the Netherlands on the 10th of October 2010, when the Netherlands Antilles was dissolved. The kingdom kept responsibility for defence and foreign policy.
What languages are spoken in Curaçao?
Papiamentu is the most spoken language in Curaçao, used most at home by 78% of residents in the 2023 census. Dutch, Papiamentu and English are official languages, and Dutch alone is used for administration and legal matters.
How did oil change Curaçao's economy?
The discovery of oil at Mene Grande in Venezuela in 1914 made Curaçao a major refining location, supplied with Venezuelan crude. Royal Dutch Shell left in 1985 after 70 years and sold the refinery for one Antillean guilder.
What happened in the 1795 slave revolt in Curaçao?
In 1795, up to 4,000 enslaved people in northwest Curaçao revolted under Tula Rigaud, Louis Mercier, Bastian Karpata and Pedro Wakao. More than 1,000 took part in extended gunfights, and slave owners suppressed the revolt after a month.
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