Oil refinery: the story on HearLore

Oil refinery

In the year 1000, Chinese military engineers in the city of Kaifeng were not merely refining oil for lamps, but were manufacturing the world's first fire bombs. The Northern Song dynasty established a workshop known as the Fierce Oil Workshop, where thousands of workers processed crude oil into a weaponized fuel. These troops filled iron cans with the refined liquid and hurled them at enemy forces, creating a terrifying fire that burned with unprecedented intensity. This early industrial complex represents one of the earliest examples of large-scale oil refining, predating modern petroleum history by nearly a millennium. The process involved distilling crude oil to create a flammable product that could be weaponized, demonstrating that the fundamental chemistry of refining was understood and applied for military purposes long before the invention of the internal combustion engine. The streets of Baghdad were also paved with tar derived from petroleum as early as the 9th century, and Arab geographers like Abu al-Hasan 'Ali al-Mas'ūdī described oil fields in the region around modern Baku, Azerbaijan, in the 10th century. Marco Polo later documented these wells in the 13th century, noting that their output amounted to hundreds of shiploads. The technology of distillation eventually made its way to Western Europe through Islamic Spain by the 12th century, setting the stage for the global industry that would follow.

The Kerosene Revolution

The modern petroleum industry did not begin with gasoline, but with a desperate search for a better light source than whale oil. In 1846, Abraham Gessner of Nova Scotia, Canada, devised a process to produce kerosene from coal, marking a pivotal moment in energy history. Shortly thereafter, in 1854, Ignacy Łukasiewicz, a Polish pharmacist and inventor, began producing kerosene from hand-dug oil wells near the town of Krosno, Poland. Łukasiewicz established an oil refinery in Jasło, then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, which is now in Poland. Romania was registered as the first country in world oil production statistics, with the first large refinery opening at Ploiești in 1856 or 1857. In North America, the first oil well was drilled in 1858 by James Miller Williams in Oil Springs, Ontario, Canada. The United States petroleum industry began in 1859 when Edwin Drake found oil near Titusville, Pennsylvania. Samuel Kier established America's first oil refinery in Pittsburgh on Seventh Avenue near Grant Street in 1853. Prior to the 19th century, petroleum was known and utilized in various fashions in Babylon, Egypt, China, the Philippines, Rome, and Azerbaijan, but the modern history of the petroleum industry is said to have begun in 1846. The industry grew slowly in the 1800s, primarily producing kerosene for oil lamps. In the early 20th century, the introduction of the internal combustion engine and its use in automobiles created a market for gasoline that was the impetus for fairly rapid growth of the petroleum industry. The early finds of petroleum like those in Ontario and Pennsylvania were soon outstripped by large oil booms in Oklahoma, Texas, and California.

When did the first oil refinery operate in China?

The first oil refinery in China operated in the year 1000 within the city of Kaifeng. Chinese military engineers established the Fierce Oil Workshop to process crude oil into weaponized fuel for fire bombs.

Who invented the first modern method of liquid extraction for refining crude oil?

Lazăr Edeleanu invented the first modern method of liquid extraction for refining crude oil in 1908. This process, known as the Edeleanu process, increased refining efficiency compared to pure fractional distillation and allowed massive development of refining plants.

Which country was registered as the first in world oil production statistics?

Romania was registered as the first country in world oil production statistics. The first large refinery opened at Ploiești in 1856 or 1857.

When did the United States build its last major refinery?

Marathon's Garyville, Louisiana facility became the last major refinery built in the United States in 1976. No major refinery has been built in the country since that date due to environmental restrictions and political pressure.

What is the total capacity of global refineries for crude oil in 2020?

The total capacity of global refineries for crude oil was about 101.2 million barrels per day in 2020. Oil refineries are large-scale plants that process about a hundred thousand to several hundred thousand barrels of crude oil a day.

What health risks are associated with working in an oil refinery?

Working in an oil refinery is associated with increased risk of various cancers such as mesothelioma and leukemia. Workers also face hazards from high pressure system failures, heat reaching 500 degrees Celsius, and noise levels exceeding 90 decibels.

The Chemistry of Efficiency

In 1908, Lazăr Edeleanu, a Romanian chemist of Jewish origin who had received his PhD in 1887 by discovering amphetamine, invented the first modern method of liquid extraction for refining crude oil. This process, known as the Edeleanu process, increased refining efficiency compared to pure fractional distillation and allowed a massive development of refining plants. Successively, the process was implemented in France, Germany, the United States, and within a few decades became worldwide spread. In 1910, Edeleanu founded Allgemeine Gesellschaft für Chemische Industrie in Germany, which, given the success of the name, changed to Edeleanu GmbH in 1930. During Nazi times, the company was bought by the Deutsche Erdöl-AG and Edeleanu, being of Jewish origin, moved back to Romania. After the war, the trademark was used by the successor company EDELEANU Gesellschaft mbH Alzenau for many petroleum products, while the company was lately integrated as EDL in the Pörner Group. The Ploiești refineries, after being taken over by Nazi Germany, were bombed in the 1943 Operation Tidal Wave by the Allies, during the Oil Campaign of World War II. Another close contender for the title of hosting the world's oldest oil refinery is Salzbergen in Lower Saxony, Germany, which opened in 1860. At one point, the refinery in Ras Tanura, Saudi Arabia owned by Saudi Aramco was claimed to be the largest oil refinery in the world. For most of the 20th century, the largest refinery was the Abadan Refinery in Iran. This refinery suffered extensive damage during the Iran, Iraq War. Since the 25th of December 2008, the world's largest refinery complex is the Jamnagar Refinery Complex, consisting of two refineries side by side operated by Reliance Industries Limited in Jamnagar, India with a combined production capacity of 1.24 million barrels per day, and SK Energy's Ulsan in South Korea with 1.05 million barrels per day. PDVSA's Paraguaná Refinery Complex in Paraguaná Peninsula, Venezuela, with a theoretical refining capacity of 1.2 million barrels per day, could be into the second place, but its effective run rates have been dramatically lower and publicly unaccounted, after Chavismo nationalized Venezuelan oil production, significantly decreasing its productivity.

The Silent Danger

In 1890, an explosion in a Chicago refinery killed 20 workers, marking one of the earliest recorded health impacts of working in an oil refinery. Since then, numerous fires, explosions, and other significant events have from time to time drawn the public's attention to the health of oil refinery workers. Such events continue in the 21st century, with explosions reported in refineries in Wisconsin and Germany in 2018. However, there are many less visible hazards that endanger oil refinery workers. A 2021 systematic review associated working in the petrochemical industry with increased risk of various cancers, such as mesothelioma. It also found reduced risks of other cancers, such as stomach and rectal. The systematic review did mention that several of the associations were not due to factors directly related to the petroleum industry, rather were related to lifestyle factors such as smoking. Evidence for adverse health effects for nearby residents was also weak, with the evidence primarily centering around neighborhoods in developed countries. Benzene, in particular, has multiple biomarkers that can be measured to determine exposure. Benzene itself can be measured in the breath, blood, and urine, and metabolites such as phenol, t,t-muconic acid, and S-phenylmercapturic acid can be measured in urine. In addition to monitoring the exposure levels via these biomarkers, employers are required by OSHA to perform regular blood tests on workers to test for early signs of some of the feared hematologic outcomes, of which the most widely recognized is leukemia. Required testing includes complete blood count with cell differentials and peripheral blood smear on a regular basis. The utility of these tests is supported by formal scientific studies. Workers are at risk of physical injuries due to a large number of high-powered machines in the relatively close proximity of the oil refinery. The high pressure required for many of the chemical reactions also presents the possibility of localized system failures resulting in blunt or penetrating trauma from exploding system components. Heat is also a hazard. The temperature required for the proper progression of certain reactions in the refining process can reach 500 degrees Celsius. As with chemicals, the operating system is designed to safely contain this hazard without injury to the worker. However, in system failures, this is a potent threat to workers' health. Concerns include both direct injury through a heat illness or injury, as well as the potential for devastating burns should the worker come in contact with super-heated reagents or equipment. Noise is another hazard. Refineries can be very loud environments, and have previously been shown to be associated with hearing loss among workers. The interior environment of an oil refinery can reach levels in excess of 90 decibels. In the United States, an average of 90 decibels is the permissible exposure limit for an 8-hour work-day. Noise exposures that average greater than 85 decibels over an 8-hour require a hearing conservation program to regularly evaluate workers' hearing and to promote its protection. Regular evaluation of workers' auditory capacity and faithful use of properly vetted hearing protection are essential parts of such programs.

The Corrosion Crisis

Corrosion of metallic components is a major factor of inefficiency in the refining process. Because it leads to equipment failure, it is a primary driver for the refinery maintenance schedule. Corrosion-related direct costs in the U.S. petroleum industry as of 1996 were estimated at US$3.7 billion. Corrosion occurs in various forms in the refining process, such as pitting corrosion from water droplets, embrittlement from hydrogen, and stress corrosion cracking from sulfide attack. From a materials standpoint, carbon steel is used for upwards of 80 percent of refinery components, which is beneficial due to its low cost. Carbon steel is resistant to the most common forms of corrosion, particularly from hydrocarbon impurities at temperatures below 205 degrees Celsius, but other corrosive chemicals and environments prevent its use everywhere. Common replacement materials are low alloy steels containing chromium and molybdenum, with stainless steels containing more chromium dealing with more corrosive environments. More expensive materials commonly used are nickel, titanium, and copper alloys. These are primarily saved for the most problematic areas where extremely high temperatures and/or very corrosive chemicals are present. Corrosion is fought by a complex system of monitoring, preventative repairs, and careful use of materials. Monitoring methods include both offline checks taken during maintenance and online monitoring. Offline checks measure corrosion after it has occurred, telling the engineer when equipment must be replaced based on the historical information they have collected. This is referred to as preventative management. Online systems are a more modern development and are revolutionizing the way corrosion is approached. There are several types of online corrosion monitoring technologies such as linear polarization resistance, electrochemical noise, and electrical resistance. Online monitoring has generally had slow reporting rates in the past, minutes or hours, and been limited by process conditions and sources of error, but newer technologies can report rates up to twice per minute with much higher accuracy, referred to as real-time monitoring. This allows process engineers to treat corrosion as another process variable that can be optimized in the system. Immediate responses to process changes allow the control of corrosion mechanisms, so they can be minimized while also maximizing production output. In an ideal situation having on-line corrosion information that is accurate and real-time will allow conditions that cause high corrosion rates to be identified and reduced. This is known as predictive management. Materials methods include selecting the proper material for the application. In areas of minimal corrosion, cheap materials are preferable, but when bad corrosion can occur, more expensive but longer-lasting materials should be used. Other materials methods come in the form of protective barriers between corrosive substances and the equipment metals. These can be either a lining of refractory material such as standard Portland cement or other special acid-resistant cement that is shot onto the inner surface of the vessel. Also available are thin overlays of more expensive metals that protect cheaper metal against corrosion without requiring much material.

The Environmental Paradox

In 1976, Marathon's Garyville, Louisiana facility became the last major refinery built in the United States, marking a virtual halt to new construction due to environmental restrictions and political pressure. However, many existing refineries have been expanded during that time. Environmental restrictions and pressure to prevent the construction of new refineries may have also contributed to rising fuel prices in the United States. Additionally, many refineries, more than 100 since the 1980s, have closed due to obsolescence and/or merger activity within the industry itself. In 1982, the earliest data provided, the United States operated 301 refineries with a combined capacity of 17.5 million barrels of crude oil each calendar day. In 2010, there were 149 operable U.S. refineries with a combined capacity of 17.5 million barrels per calendar day. By 2014, the number of refineries had decreased to 140 but the total capacity increased to 17.5 million barrels per calendar day. Indeed, in order to reduce operating costs and depreciation, refining is operated in fewer sites but of bigger capacity. In 2009 through 2010, as revenue streams in the oil business dried up and profitability of oil refineries fell due to lower demand for product and high reserves of supply preceding the economic recession, oil companies began to close or sell the less profitable refineries. Oil refineries are sometimes located some distance away from major urban areas. Nevertheless, there are many instances where refinery operations are close to populated areas and pose health risks. In California's Contra Costa County and Solano County, a shoreline necklace of refineries, built in the early 20th century before this area was populated, and associated chemical plants are adjacent to urban areas in Richmond, Martinez, Pacheco, Concord, Pittsburg, Vallejo, and Benicia, with occasional accidental events that require shelter in place orders to the adjacent populations. A number of refineries are located in Sherwood Park, Alberta, directly adjacent to the City of Edmonton, which has a population of over 1,000,000 residents. The refining process releases a number of different chemicals into the atmosphere and a notable odor normally accompanies the presence of a refinery. Aside from air pollution impacts there are also wastewater concerns, risks of industrial accidents such as fire and explosion, and noise health effects due to industrial noise. Many governments worldwide have mandated restrictions on contaminants that refineries release, and most refineries have installed the equipment needed to comply with the requirements of the pertinent environmental protection regulatory agencies. In the United States, there is strong pressure to prevent the development of new refineries, and no major refinery has been built in the country since Marathon's Garyville, Louisiana facility in 1976. However, many existing refineries have been expanded during that time. Environmental restrictions and pressure to prevent the construction of new refineries may have also contributed to rising fuel prices in the United States. Additionally, many refineries, more than 100 since the 1980s, have closed due to obsolescence and/or merger activity within the industry itself.

The Global Capacity

In 2020, the total capacity of global refineries for crude oil was about 101.2 million barrels per day. Oil refineries are large-scale plants, processing about a hundred thousand to several hundred thousand barrels of crude oil a day. Because of the high capacity, many of the units operate continuously, as opposed to processing in batches, at steady state or nearly steady state for months to years. The high capacity also makes process optimization and advanced process control very desirable. Raw or unprocessed crude oil is not generally useful in industrial applications, although light, sweet, low viscosity, low sulfur crude oil has been used directly as a burner fuel to produce steam for the propulsion of seagoing vessels. The lighter elements, however, form explosive vapors in the fuel tanks and are therefore hazardous, especially in warships. Instead, the hundreds of different hydrocarbon molecules in crude oil are separated in a refinery into components that can be used as fuels, lubricants, and feedstocks in petrochemical processes that manufacture such products as plastics, detergents, solvents, elastomers, and fibers such as nylon and polyesters. Petroleum fossil fuels are burned in internal combustion engines to provide power for ships, automobiles, aircraft engines, lawn mowers, dirt bikes, and other machines. Different boiling points allow the hydrocarbons to be separated by distillation. Since the lighter liquid products are in great demand for use in internal combustion engines, a modern refinery will convert heavy hydrocarbons and lighter gaseous elements into these higher-value products. Oil can be used in a variety of ways because it contains hydrocarbons of varying molecular masses, forms and lengths such as paraffins, aromatics, naphthenes, or cycloalkanes, alkenes, dienes, and alkynes. While the molecules in crude oil include different atoms such as sulfur and nitrogen, the hydrocarbons are the most common form of molecules, which are molecules of varying lengths and complexity made of hydrogen and carbon atoms, and a small number of oxygen atoms. The differences in the structure of these molecules account for their varying physical and chemical properties, and it is this variety that makes crude oil useful in a broad range of several applications. Once separated and purified of any contaminants and impurities, the fuel or lubricant can be sold without further processing. Smaller molecules such as isobutane and propylene or butylenes can be recombined to meet specific octane requirements by processes such as alkylation, or more commonly, dimerization. The octane grade of gasoline can also be improved by catalytic reforming, which involves removing hydrogen from hydrocarbons producing compounds with higher octane ratings such as aromatics. Intermediate products such as gasoils can even be reprocessed to break a heavy, long-chained oil into a lighter short-chained one, by various forms of cracking such as fluid catalytic cracking, thermal cracking, and hydrocracking. The final step in gasoline production is the blending of fuels with different octane ratings, vapor pressures, and other properties to meet product specifications. Another method for reprocessing and upgrading these intermediate products, residual oils, uses a devolatilization process to separate usable oil from the waste asphaltene material. Certain cracked streams are particularly suitable to produce petrochemicals includes polypropylene, heavier polymers, and block polymers based on the molecular weight and the characteristics of the olefin specie that is cracked from the source feedstock. Over 6,000 items are made from petroleum waste by-products, including fertilizer, floor coverings, perfume, insecticide, petroleum jelly, soap, and vitamin capsules.