Oil refinery
As early as the first century, Chinese civilizations were refining crude oil for use as an energy source. Between 512 and 518, during the late Northern Wei dynasty, a geographer named Li Daoyuan introduced the process of refining oil into various lubricants in his famous work Commentary on the Water Classic. The streets of Baghdad were paved with tar derived from petroleum that became accessible from natural fields in the region. In the 9th century, oil fields were exploited in the area around modern Baku, Azerbaijan. These fields were described by the Arab geographer Abu al-Hasan 'Alī al-Mas'ūdī in the 10th century. Marco Polo later described the output of those wells as hundreds of shiploads in the 13th century. Arab and Persian chemists distilled crude oil to produce flammable products for military purposes. Through Islamic Spain, distillation became available in Western Europe by the 12th century. During the Northern Song dynasty between 960 and 1127, a workshop called the Fierce Oil Workshop was established in the city of Kaifeng. This facility produced refined oil for the Song military as a weapon. Troops filled iron cans with refined oil and threw them toward enemy troops to cause fire. This effectively created the world's first fire bomb. Thousands of people worked at this workshop to produce Chinese oil-powered weaponry.
Modern refineries process about one hundred thousand to several hundred thousand barrels of crude oil each day. The Crude Distillation Unit serves as the first processing step in virtually all petroleum refineries. Incoming crude oil is preheated by exchanging heat with hot distilled fractions before entering a fuel-fired furnace. The furnace heats the oil to approximately 398 degrees Celsius and routes it into the bottom of the distillation unit. The overhead distillate fraction from the column becomes naphtha. Sidecuts removed from various points along the column include kerosene, light gas oil, and heavy gas oil. A vacuum distillation unit further processes residue oil from the bottom of the atmospheric unit. This occurs at pressure well below atmospheric levels. Fluid catalytic cracking upgrades heavier fractions by converting them into lighter products. Hydrocracking uses hydrogen to upgrade heavy residual oils into reduced viscosity products. Catalytic reformers convert desulfurized naphtha molecules into higher-octane molecules. These reformers release hydrogen during the catalyst reaction which feeds other units. The Claus process transforms hydrogen sulfide into elementary sulfur for sale to the chemical industry. Over 64 million metric tons of sulfur were produced worldwide in 2005 mostly as byproduct from refining.
In 2020, the total capacity of global refineries for crude oil reached about 101.2 million barrels per day. Since the 25th of December 2008, the Jamnagar Refinery owned by Reliance Industries has been the world's largest facility. It is located in Gujarat India with a processing capacity of 1.24 million barrels per day. SK Energy operates Ulsan in South Korea with a capacity of 900 thousand barrels per day. PDVSA's Paraguaná Refinery Complex in Venezuela had a theoretical capacity of 1.2 million barrels but effective run rates have been dramatically lower since Chavismo nationalized Venezuelan oil production. Romania was registered as the first country in world oil production statistics according to the Academy Of World Records. Samuel Kier established America's first oil refinery in Pittsburgh on Seventh Avenue near Grant Street in 1853. Ignacy Łukasiewicz established an oil refinery in Jasło then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1854. The first large refinery opened at Ploiești Romania in 1856 or 1857. Salzbergen in Lower Saxony Germany opened its refinery in 1860 and remains a close contender for hosting the world's oldest oil refinery.
The refining process releases various chemicals into the atmosphere creating a notable odor that accompanies the presence of a refinery. Many governments worldwide have mandated restrictions on contaminants that refineries release. In the United States, no major refinery has been built since Marathon's Garyville Louisiana facility in 1976. More than half the refineries that existed in 1981 are now closed due to low utilization rates and accelerating mergers. Total US refinery capacity fell between 1981 and 1995 though operating capacity stayed fairly constant. Environmental restrictions and pressure to prevent new construction may have contributed to rising fuel prices in the United States. California's Contra Costa County and Solano County feature a shoreline necklace of refineries adjacent to urban areas. These facilities were built in the early 20th century before this area was populated. Occasional accidental events require shelter in place orders to adjacent populations. A number of refineries are located in Sherwood Park Alberta directly adjacent to the City of Edmonton which has over one million residents. The United States requires very low sulfur content in all but the heaviest products to ensure environmental protection.
Reports of health impacts from working in an oil refinery can be found as early as the 1800s. An explosion in a Chicago refinery killed 20 workers in 1890. Explosions reported in Wisconsin and Germany occurred in 2018 drawing public attention to worker safety. Benzene serves as a paradigm for discussing occupational exposure limits among refinery workers. OSHA established an eight-hour time-weighted average limit of ten parts per million for benzene exposure. NIOSH set a recommended exposure limit of 0.1 ppm for the same chemical. Employers must perform regular blood tests on workers to test for early signs of leukemia. The interior environment of an oil refinery can reach levels in excess of 90 decibels. Noise exposures averaging greater than 85 decibels over an eight-hour day require a hearing conservation program. In a 2018 report by the US Bureau of Labor Statistics, petroleum refinery workers had significantly lower rates of occupational injury at 0.4 cases per 100 full-time workers compared to 3.1 cases across all industries. A 2021 systematic review associated working in the petrochemical industry with increased risk of mesothelioma.
In the United States, construction of new refineries came to a virtual stop around the 1980s due to complex economic and political reasons. Many existing refineries have been expanded during that time rather than building new facilities. In 1982 the earliest data provided, the United States operated 301 refineries with combined capacity of crude oil each calendar day. By 2010 there were 149 operable U.S. refineries with a combined capacity of barrels per calendar day. By 2014 the number of refineries had decreased to 140 but total capacity increased to barrels per calendar day. Refining is operated in fewer sites but of bigger capacity to reduce operating costs and depreciation. Oil companies began to close or sell less profitable refineries between 2009 and 2010 as revenue streams dried up. More than 100 refineries have closed since the 1980s due to obsolescence and merger activity within the industry itself. Corrosion-related direct costs in the US petroleum industry as of 1996 were estimated at 3.7 billion dollars.
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Common questions
When did Chinese civilizations start refining crude oil?
Chinese civilizations were refining crude oil as early as the first century. This process was introduced into various lubricants by geographer Li Daoyuan between 512 and 518 during the late Northern Wei dynasty.
Which refinery is currently the largest in the world?
The Jamnagar Refinery owned by Reliance Industries has been the world's largest facility since the 25th of December 2008. It is located in Gujarat India with a processing capacity of 1.24 million barrels per day.
Who established America's first oil refinery?
Samuel Kier established America's first oil refinery in Pittsburgh on Seventh Avenue near Grant Street in 1853. Ignacy Łukasiewicz subsequently established an oil refinery in Jasło then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1854.
What are the occupational exposure limits for benzene in US refineries?
OSHA established an eight-hour time-weighted average limit of ten parts per million for benzene exposure. NIOSH set a recommended exposure limit of 0.1 ppm for the same chemical.
How many US refineries existed in 1982 compared to 2010?
In 1982 the United States operated 301 refineries with combined capacity of crude oil each calendar day. By 2010 there were 149 operable U.S. refineries with a combined capacity of barrels per calendar day.