Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event
The Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction event, known as K-Pg, left its mark in a thin layer of sediment that turns up in rocks all over the world. Geologists find it on land and under the sea. It sits exactly where the Cretaceous period ends, and with it the whole Mesozoic era. Above it begins the Cenozoic, the era we still live in. The clay in that layer holds unusually high levels of iridium. Around the time it formed, about three-quarters of all plant and animal species on Earth disappeared. Older books call the event K-T, short for Cretaceous-Tertiary. The name changed, but the questions did not. What delivered that metal to the clay? Why did some animals walk out of the catastrophe while others vanished? Did the killing take a single season or thousands of years? And how did a half-emptied planet fill itself again?
In 1980, a team of four made a discovery about the boundary clay. They were the Nobel Prize-winning physicist Luis Alvarez, his son Walter, a geologist, and the chemists Frank Asaro and Helen Michel. At the three sections they first studied, iridium ran 30, 160 and 20 times above normal.
Iridium is scarce in Earth's crust for a reason. It is a siderophile element, meaning it follows iron, and most of it sank into the planet's core when the young Earth separated into layers. Comets and asteroids still carry far more of it. The team therefore proposed that an asteroid had struck at the moment the boundary formed.
Others had speculated about an impact before, but this was the first hard evidence. Many scientists first viewed the idea as radical. More clues arrived quickly. The clay was full of tiny spherules, crystallized from droplets of rock that the impact had melted. Shocked quartz and other shocked minerals turned up in it too. Giant tsunami beds were found along the Gulf Coast and the Caribbean. The boundary layer also grew thicker across the southern United States, with beds of debris a meter thick in northern New Mexico. All of this suggested an impact somewhere nearby.
The geophysicist Glen Penfield had done work in 1978 that later proved crucial. In 1990, the buried Chicxulub crater was identified on the coast of the Yucatán Peninsula. It is oval and averages roughly 180 km across, close to the size the Alvarez team had calculated. In March 2010, an international panel of 41 scientists reviewed 20 years of research. They endorsed the Chicxulub impact as the cause and ruled out theories such as massive volcanism.
Critics raised one early objection. They argued that the impact came about 300,000 years before the extinction, so it could not have caused it. In a 2013 paper, Paul Renne of the Berkeley Geochronology Center used argon-argon dating to answer this. He concluded that the extinction happened within 32,000 years of the impact.
Where the asteroid came from is far less settled. In 2007, researchers proposed that it belonged to the Baptistina family of asteroids. A report in 2009 found that 298 Baptistina does not share the chemical signature of the impactor. Then a 2011 study using the WISE infrared survey estimated that the family broke apart 80 million years ago. That left too little time for fragments to drift into Earth's path. Luis Alvarez died in 1988, two years before the crater he had predicted was identified.
A rock between 10 and 15 km wide struck Earth at roughly 34,000 miles per hour. Its energy is put at 100 teratons of TNT, meaning 100 trillion tons. That is more than a billion times the energy released by the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
The asteroid fell into relatively shallow seas, and the waves were colossal. The megatsunami is estimated at more than 100 m tall. In deep water it would have reached 4.6 km. Its deposits have been found in the La Popa basin of northeastern Mexico, in platform carbonates in northeastern Brazil, and in deep Atlantic sediments. Inside the crater itself lies the thickest known layer of graded sand, about 100 m deep, resting directly on shocked granite.
Fossil-bearing rocks from the Gulf of Mexico area preserve the remains of a mangrove-type ecosystem. They show that the water sloshed back and forth repeatedly. Dead fish stranded in the shallows were left undisturbed by scavengers.
Heat may have followed the water. Ejecta falling back through the atmosphere could have produced an intense infrared pulse lasting hours, cooking exposed organisms. Opponents argue that the fires were local, probably confined to North America, and fell short of global firestorms. A 2013 paper by a prominent modeler of nuclear winter used the soot in the worldwide debris layer to suggest that the entire land biosphere might have burned. Experiments, however, indicate that wildfires alone could not have wiped out the plants, because the atmosphere absorbed much of the thermal radiation.
Few fossil sites record the mass death directly. Tanis, in southwestern North Dakota, sits within the Hell Creek Formation, a group of rocks spanning four states. It appears to capture events from the first minutes to a few hours after the impact. Many well-preserved fossils there seem to have been buried by a catastrophic flood, probably caused by the impact. Amber from the site is reported to contain microtektites matching those of Chicxulub. Some researchers question how the findings are interpreted. Others are skeptical of the team leader, Robert DePalma, who had not yet received his Ph.D. in geology at the time of the discovery and whose commercial activities have drawn suspicion.
A second witness lies in the Hornerstown Formation of New Jersey. Its Main Fossiliferous Layer holds a mass of disarticulated vertebrate remains, likely dumped there by an impact-related flood.
The asteroid landed on rock rich in gypsum and anhydrite, which held combustible hydrocarbons and a great deal of sulfur. Much of that rock vaporized and sent sulfuric acid aerosols high into the stratosphere. They may have cut the sunlight reaching the surface by more than 50%. Fine silicate dust and soot deepened the gloom, and the dust cloud alone may have blocked light for up to a year.
Models of the Hell Creek Formation show the darkness reaching its maximum within a few weeks and lasting upwards of two years. Freezing temperatures probably persisted for at least three years. The climatic forcing was about 100 times that of the 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo. At the Brazos section, the sea surface cooled by as much as 7 degrees Celsius for decades. The aerosols needed at least ten years to dissipate. That is long enough to account for the death of plants and plankton, then of the herbivores that fed on them and the predators that fed on those.
In 2016, a scientific drilling project took deep cores from the peak ring around the crater, a ring of 120 miles. The rock there had been shocked and melted within minutes. It was granite from deep underground, thrown up to the surface. Gypsum, the sulfate rock normally found on the shallow seabed of that region, was almost entirely missing. It had been vaporized into the air.
The chemistry attacked the oceans as well. Sulfur aerosols brought acid rain, and the seas acidified, which harms any organism that builds a shell of calcium carbonate. The heat of the impact may also have produced nitric acid rain. In October 2019, researchers argued that the asteroid acidified the oceans rapidly, with long-lasting effects on the climate.
After the cold came warmth. Vaporized carbonates released carbon dioxide, which lingers in the air long after short-lived cooling gases fade. Carbon monoxide rose too, and with it tropospheric ozone and methane, which made the warming worse. Water vapour injected into the atmosphere added further disturbance.
The end-Cretaceous event is the only mass extinction definitively tied to an impact. The Manicouagan Reservoir impact, another large strike, matches no noticeable extinction at all.
The Deccan Traps, a series of flood basalt eruptions, began close to the boundary between the Mesozoic and Cenozoic. Before 2000, blaming them usually went with the view that the extinction was gradual. The eruptions were thought to have started around 68 million years ago and to have lasted more than 2 million years. The newest evidence shows they erupted over only 800,000 years, spanning the boundary.
That tighter timing made them a stronger suspect. Volcanic dust and sulfuric aerosols could have blocked sunlight and starved plants. Later, carbon dioxide would have strengthened the greenhouse effect once the aerosols cleared. Plant fossils record a rise of 250 parts per million in carbon dioxide across the boundary. Increased mercury deposition points to acid rain. Temperatures rose by three to four degrees between 65.4 and 65.2 million years ago, very near the extinction. Evidence from Tunisia shows that marine life suffered during a warm, humid pulse of Deccan activity before the impact. Charophyte declines in China's Songliao Basin also predate the impact. Some geophysical models even suggest that the impact triggered some of the largest Deccan eruptions.
Other evidence cuts the other way. Some studies find the timeline of volcanism and climate change out of step. Pollen changes do not line up with volcanic intervals, and many sites show stable climate in the final stretch of the Cretaceous. A 2020 study found two peaks of volcanic degassing. The first came more than 200,000 years before the extinction. The second began around the extinction and lasted about 355,000 years. The paleontologist Michael Benton accepts that the Deccan Traps did not cause the extinction. Another 2020 study argued that long-term volcanic warming would have made habitats more suitable, not less. In January 2020, scientists reported that climate modeling favored the asteroid over volcanism.
Luis Alvarez had answered the volcano camp long before. When it was linked to a slow extinction, he replied that paleontologists were being misled by sparse data. His claim was not well received at first, but intensive fieldwork later supported it. Even Walter Alvarez acknowledged that other major changes may have contributed.
A falling sea was another suspect. Sea levels dropped in the final stage of the Cretaceous by more than at any other time in the Mesozoic. Rock layers from around the world show seabed giving way to shoreline and then to dry land, without the tilting that mountain building causes. The accepted explanation is that the mid-ocean ridges became less active and sank under their own weight. The loss of shallow shelf, the most species-rich part of the sea, could have caused a marine mass extinction. Seas such as the Western Interior Seaway of North America drained away. Freshwater habitats expanded and favored freshwater vertebrates, while sharks suffered. Yet some sections show no sign of regression and still record a sharp drop in diversity.
Some researchers wonder whether Chicxulub had company. Other craters have been proposed, including the 24 km Boltysh crater in Ukraine and the 20 km Silverpit crater in the North Sea. The much larger 600 km Shiva crater is controversial. Together they would resemble the fragmented impact of Shoemaker-Levy 9 on Jupiter. Any craters in the Tethys Ocean would since have been hidden by the northward drift of Africa and India.
Proponents of multiple causes say each single suspect is too small, or does not fit the pattern of who died. J. David Archibald and David E. Fastovsky described a scenario combining volcanism, falling seas and impact. In it, habitat loss stressed ecosystems first, and the impact then collapsed food chains already under strain. Sierra Petersen and colleagues studied Seymour Island in Antarctica. They found a warming of 7.8 plus or minus 3.3 degrees Celsius at the start of Deccan volcanism and a second, smaller warming at the impact. Extinctions there came in two pulses that matched the two warmings.
The Signor-Lipps effect makes the length of the extinction hard to pin down. The fossil record is so incomplete that most extinct species probably lived on long after their last known fossil. Very few unbroken rock beds also span several million years on either side of the boundary.
Still, several lines of evidence point to speed. Sedimentation rates and the thickness of boundary clay at three sites suggest the extinction may have taken less than 10,000 years. In the Denver Basin of Colorado, the fern spike lasted about 1,000 years and no more than 71,000. Cenozoic mammals appeared there after about 185,000 years, and no more than 570,000. Analysis of the carbon cycle disruptions constrains them to just 5,000 years. Models presented at a meeting of the American Geophysical Union put the global darkness in the Hell Creek Formation at nearly 2 years.
The season of the catastrophe has been argued over as well. A 1991 study of fossil leaves dated the freezing to early June. A later study moved it to spring, using the bones of acipenseriform fishes and stable isotope records. It noted that the assumptions behind the June date have since been refuted. Depalma and colleagues chose a spring-summer range in 2021. During and colleagues criticized that study in 2024, citing a lack of primary data and an unidentified laboratory. Fish bones from Tanis suggest that the extinction happened in the Northern Hemisphere spring.
The dinosaurs sit at the center of the speed debate. A study of 29 fossil sites in the Catalan Pyrenees in 2010 found more than 100 dinosaur species, apparently thriving until the impact. More recent work argues that this figure is distorted by fossilization biases and a sparse continental record. Using estimated global biodiversity, it found that between 628 and 1,078 non-avian dinosaur species were alive at the end of the Cretaceous and died suddenly. Rocks along the Red Deer River in Alberta, Canada, tell a gradual story instead. There, over the last 10 million years of the Cretaceous, species counts seem to fall from about 45 to roughly 12.
The record may simply be too poor to settle it. The best sequence comes from western North America, especially the Hell Creek Formation of Montana. Older beds there and at the Judith River Formation and Dinosaur Park Formation date to about 75 million years ago. The late Maastrichtian rocks hold the largest members of several major groups, including Tyrannosaurus, Ankylosaurus, Pachycephalosaurus, Triceratops and Torosaurus. That suggests food was plentiful just before the end.
Some researchers claim dinosaurs outlived the boundary. They point to remains in the Hell Creek Formation up to 1.3 m above it and 40,000 years later. A hadrosaur femur from the Ojo Alamo Sandstone in Colorado sits among pollen from about 64.5 million years ago. If real, these animals would be a dead clade walking. The scientific consensus is that the fossils eroded from older rock and were buried again much later.
A crocodile can go for months without eating. That single fact helps explain why crocodilians outlasted the dinosaurs. Warm-blooded animals of similar size need far more food to power a faster metabolism. When food chains broke down, the dinosaurs lost out while some crocodilians endured.
Scientists agree that every non-avian dinosaur died at the boundary. There is no evidence that the late dinosaurs could burrow, swim or dive, so they had no way to shelter from the worst conditions. Small dinosaurs may have lived a while, but plants were scarce for herbivores and prey was short for carnivores. Prolonged cold is an unlikely culprit, since many dinosaurs were adapted to cold climates.
Food chains built on dead matter fared best. Stream and lake ecosystems lost few animal groups, including large crocodyliforms and champsosaurs, because they run on detritus washed in from the land. On land, omnivores, insectivores and carrion-eaters survived. Neither strictly herbivorous nor strictly carnivorous mammals seem to have made it. The survivors fed on insects, worms and snails, which in turn fed on detritus.
The crocodyliforms show the pattern clearly. Ten families appear in the latest Cretaceous record, and five died out before the boundary. The other five continued into the Paleocene. About half of all crocodyliforms survived, and no large crocodiles did. Their ability to burrow and their aquatic lives likely helped. Jouve and colleagues suggested in 2008 that young marine crocodyliforms grew up in fresh water, as modern marine crocodiles do. Young crocodilians are small, grow slowly and eat mostly invertebrates and dead creatures. More than 80% of Cretaceous turtle species crossed the boundary, and all six turtle families survived.
The oceans followed a similar logic. Animals living in the water column, which depend on living phytoplankton, suffered more than those on or in the sea floor. One description of the damage is stark. The oceans may have returned to a state the world had not seen in half a billion years.
Here is the quotation: "the oceans may have very well returned to a single-celled state that the world had not seen in over half a billion years." Coccolithophores, vital to the open ocean, were nearly wiped out. Researchers theorize that surviving mixotrophic types, which can both photosynthesize and eat prey, rebuilt the algal food web.
Shell builders were hit hard. Ammonites were probably the main prey of the giant marine reptiles called mosasaurs, which also died out. Among cephalopods, only the nautiloids and the coleoids, ancestors of octopuses, squids and cuttlefish, survived. Researchers point to reproduction. Nautiloids lay few, large eggs, while ammonoids relied on huge numbers of eggs and planktonic larvae, which the extinction would have devastated. Afterward, nautiloids evolved shell shapes once known only from ammonoids.
Around 60% of late Cretaceous coral genera did not cross the boundary. About 98% of colonial species, which live in warm shallow water and depend on symbiotic algae, were lost. Solitary corals of colder, deeper water were less affected. Among cartilaginous fish, 7 of 41 families of modern sharks, skates and rays vanished. More than 90% of bony fish families survived.
On land, the survivors among mammals and birds were small, with the mammals comparable to rats. Small size helped them find shelter, and some early mammals were probably semiaquatic or burrowing. Birds could dive, swim, or hide in water and marshlands, and many nest in burrows, tree holes or termite nests. The only bird group known for certain to have survived is the Aves. In the Hell Creek beds, all eleven known metatherian species are missing above the boundary.
Fungi were the first to profit. With plants wiped out, fungi that live on decaying vegetation needed no sunlight. Microfossils show a surge of fungal spores, with Monoporisporites and hypha almost the only ones for a short span. Their dominance lasted only a few years, while the atmosphere cleared.
Ferns came next. In some regions the recovery began with ferns, shown in the rock as a fern spike. The boundary layer holds little pollen and is dominated by fern spores, where flowering plant pollen ruled below it. The same pattern followed the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens. Just two fern species seem to have dominated the landscape for centuries. Extra copies of the genome in polyploid flowering plants probably helped them adapt to the changing conditions.
The damage to plants varied by place. About 57% of plant species in North America became extinct. In high southern latitudes such as New Zealand and Antarctica, the relative abundance of plant groups changed sharply but briefly, without much turnover in species. European flora was less affected, probably because it lay far from the crater, and flora in northern Alaska and the Anadyr-Koryak region of Russia was minimally affected. Over about 6 million years of recovery, forest composition changed and neotropical rainforests such as the Amazonia arose.
The animal world changed just as sharply. Ants were present in the Cretaceous, but by the Eocene they had become dominant, diverse and more numerous in their colonies. Butterflies diversified, perhaps replacing leaf-eating insects that had been lost. Advanced mound-building termites rose in importance. Among fish, billfish, tunas, eels and flatfish all appear in the Paleocene and Eocene. Frogs radiated too, and 88% of modern frog diversity traces to three lineages that evolved after the catastrophe.
Most paleontologists regard birds as the only surviving dinosaurs. After the extinction, the open niches and scarcity of predators let birds radiate. Many species of Neoaves appear to have radiated after the boundary. Ratites diversified rapidly and are believed to have lost flight independently at least three to six times, often taking the roles of large herbivores once held by dinosaurs.
Mammals followed a more debated path. Some research finds no explosive diversification, and one recent study concludes that only marsupial orders diversified soon afterward. Even so, shape changes among placental mammals ran three times faster than before. New species within genera were about 9.1% larger. After roughly 700,000 years, some mammals had reached 50 kilos, or 110 pounds, a 100-fold gain over the survivors. In time came horses, whales, bats and primates. Recovery was faster in the Southern Hemisphere, according to evidence from the Salamanca Formation. Body sizes of placental survivors grew first, and brain sizes increased later, in the Eocene.
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Common questions
What was the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction event?
The Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction event, also called K-Pg and formerly K-T, was a mass extinction that wiped out about three-quarters of plant and animal species on Earth around 66 million years ago. It ended the Cretaceous period and the Mesozoic era and began the Cenozoic.
What caused the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction event?
The leading explanation is the impact of an asteroid 10 to 15 km wide that created the Chicxulub crater on Mexico's Yucatán Peninsula. A lasting impact winter halted photosynthesis. In March 2010 a panel of 41 scientists endorsed the impact as the cause.
How do scientists know an asteroid caused the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction event?
In 1980 Luis Alvarez, Walter Alvarez, Frank Asaro and Helen Michel found boundary clay with iridium 30, 160 and 20 times above normal at three sections. Spherules, shocked quartz, tsunami beds and the 180 km Chicxulub crater identified in 1990 added further evidence.
Did the Deccan Traps cause the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction event?
The Deccan Traps are a proposed contributor, but most evidence favors the asteroid. In January 2020 climate modeling favored the impact over volcanism, and the paleontologist Michael Benton accepts that the Deccan Traps did not cause the extinction.
Which animals survived the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction event?
Survivors included crocodilians, turtles, small mammals about the size of rats, and birds. More than 80% of turtle species and about half of crocodyliforms crossed the boundary. Animals tied to detritus-based food chains fared best.
How long did the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction event last?
The duration is debated. Boundary clay at three sites suggests it may have taken less than 10,000 years, and carbon cycle disruptions were constrained to about 5,000 years. The Signor-Lipps effect makes the exact length hard to determine.
What happened after the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction event?
Fungi and then ferns recolonized the land, and many surviving groups radiated into emptied niches. Within about 700,000 years some mammals reached 50 kilos, and birds, fish, frogs, insects and mammals diversified through the Paleogene.
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- 228JournalThe global stratigraphy of the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary impact ejectaJan Smit — 1999
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- 285The K–T extinctionCowen, R. — University of California Museum of Paleontology — 2000
- 286JournalA seismically induced onshore surge deposit at the KPg boundary, North DakotaRobert A. DePalma — 1 April 2019
- 287BookEarth: An Intimate HistoryRichard Fortey — Vintage Books — 2005
- 288Chicxulub impact event: Understanding the K–T boundaryKring, D.A. — NASA Space Imagery Center — 2005
- 289MagazineThe Day the Dinosaurs DiedDouglas Preston — 8 April 2019