Second United Front
In late 1935, Chiang Kai-shek initiated secret negotiations with the Soviet Union to secure material aid for a potential war against Japan. This diplomatic maneuver required a ceasefire between the ruling Kuomintang and the Chinese Communist Party. The CCP Central Committee expressed interest in forming a united anti-Japanese army under a national defense government. However, the wide gap between their conditions stalled further talks during the first half of 1936. Meanwhile, the CCP opened separate channels with Nationalist forces besieging them in northwest China. They signed secret agreements with Zhang Xueliang, leader of the Northeastern Army, and Yang Hucheng, head of the Northwestern Army. These generals resented Chiang's prioritization of civil war over resistance to Japanese invasion. Yan Xishan, another neighboring warlord, also signed a pact with the Communists though less closely aligned than his counterparts. Members of this northwestern alliance shared a desire to resist Japan but disagreed on execution details. The CCP supported using Soviet support to take control of Shaanxi, Gansu, Ningxia, Qinghai, and Xinjiang. Zhang, Yang, and Yan remained committed to convincing Chiang to lead the anti-Japanese resistance themselves. They kept their alliance secret and even staged fake military battles to allay suspicions from the Nanjing government.
By late 1936, Zhang Xueliang concluded that repeated attempts to persuade Chiang Kai-shek had failed. He decided resorting to drastic measures was necessary as the threat of Japanese invasion loomed larger. On the 12th of December 1936, Zhang and Yang conspired to kidnap Chiang and force him into a truce with the CCP. This event became known as the Xi'an Incident. Both parties suspended fighting to form a Second United Front to focus energies against the Japanese. In early November, Chen Lifu presented Pan Hannian with extremely harsh conditions for a deal. Pan balked, calling them "conditions for surrender." Chiang ordered the Northeastern Army and Hu Zongnan's Right Route Army to attack towards the CCP capital at Bao'an. At the resulting Battle of Shanchengbao, the Northeastern Army withheld most forces from the attack. This allowed the Red Army to ambush and nearly wipe out Hu's 78th regiment. The diplomatic situation reversed when Chen Lifu moderated his conditions. The CCP recalled Pan Hannian from Nanjing on December 10 before the kidnapping occurred.
In July 1937, the Presidium of the Central Military Commission issued an order for the Red Army to reorganize into the National Revolutionary Army. They stood by for the anti-Japanese front line as part of the new alliance. The Red Army was restructured into the New Fourth Army and the Eighth Route Army under National Revolutionary Army command. The CCP agreed to accept leadership of Chiang Kai-shek and began receiving financial support from the central government run by the Kuomintang. Agreements led to the creation of KMT Shaan-Gan-Ning Border Region and Jin-Cha-Ji Border Region controlled by the Communists. Among negotiation points was the ability of the CCP to openly publish newspapers in KMT areas. In late August 1937, Zhou Enlai and Shao Lizi agreed that Xinhua Daily and Chuin Chung Weekly would be published in these zones. After full-scale war commenced between China and Japan, CCP forces fought alongside KMT forces during the Battle of Taiyuan. The high point of cooperation arrived in 1938 during the Battle of Wuhan. However, CCP submission to the chain of command remained nominal at best.
In 1938, Mao argued that the CCP should trade space for time vis-a-vis the Japanese and leave fighting burdens to the Nationalists. The uneasy alliance began breaking down by late 1938 as the CCP intensified efforts to expand military strength through absorbing guerrilla forces behind enemy lines. An instance of a clash reported in Chiang Kai-Shek's diary occurred when Red Army led by He Long attacked militia led by Chang Yin-wu in Hebei in June 1939. By December 1940, Chiang Kai-shek demanded that the CCP's New Fourth Army evacuate Anhui and Jiangsu Provinces. Reasons for the subsequent ambush by Nationalists remain unclear with both sides blaming each other for attacking first. CCP commanders only agreed to move troops in Southern Anhui to the northern shore of the Yangtze River. Once there, Communist forces were ambushed and defeated by Nationalist troops in January 1941. This clash became known as the New Fourth Army Incident. It weakened but did not end the CCP position in Central China. Effectively it ended any substantive cooperation between the two parties who then concentrated on jockeying for civil war positions.
After the Second Sino-Japanese War concluded, Chiang Kai-shek and Mao Zedong attempted peace talks that ultimately failed. By 1946 the Kuomintang and the Chinese Communist Party engaged in all-out civil war. The Communists obtained seized Japanese Army weapons in the Northeast with Soviet acquiescence. They took the opportunity to engage the already weakened KMT forces. In October 1949, Mao established the People's Republic of China while Chiang retreated to the island of Taiwan. During the conflict, the CCP focused energy on building influence through rural mass organizations and administrative reforms favoring poor peasants. Meanwhile, the KMT allocated many divisions of its regular army to carry out military blockades of CCP areas until the end of the war. Within occupied provinces, both sides continued warfare against each other behind enemy lines. The CCP eventually destroyed or absorbed KMT partisan forces or drove them into puppet governments of Japan.
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Common questions
What was the Second United Front between the Chinese Communist Party and the Kuomintang?
The Second United Front was an alliance formed between 1936 and 1947 to unite against Japanese invasion. It involved a ceasefire between the ruling Kuomintang and the Chinese Communist Party to focus energies on fighting Japan.
When did the Xi'an Incident occur during the Second United Front negotiations?
Zhang Xueliang and Yang Hucheng conspired to kidnap Chiang Kai-shek on the 12th of December 1936. This event forced a truce that allowed both parties to suspend fighting and form the Second United Front.
How were Red Army forces reorganized under the Second United Front in July 1937?
In July 1937, the Presidium of the Central Military Commission ordered the Red Army to reorganize into the National Revolutionary Army. The force was structured into the New Fourth Army and the Eighth Route Army under National Revolutionary Army command.
Why did the Second United Front break down by late 1938?
The alliance began breaking down as the CCP intensified efforts to expand military strength through absorbing guerrilla forces behind enemy lines. By December 1940, Chiang Kai-shek demanded that the CCP's New Fourth Army evacuate Anhui and Jiangsu Provinces, leading to further conflict.
What happened during the New Fourth Army Incident in January 1941?
Communist forces were ambushed and defeated by Nationalist troops in Southern Anhui on the northern shore of the Yangtze River in January 1941. This clash became known as the New Fourth Army Incident and effectively ended any substantive cooperation between the two parties.