China–Russia relations
In the 1500s, the Qing dynasty attempted to expel Russian settlers from Manchuria. This conflict concluded with the signing of the Treaty of Nerchinsk in 1689. The treaty established a boundary that would define relations for centuries. By the 19th century, the Russian Empire consolidated control over the Far East. It annexed parts of Chinese territory between 1858 and 1860 through unequal treaties. These historical events created a legacy of territorial disputes that would resurface decades later.
After the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949, Beijing and Moscow initially stood as allies. The Sino-Soviet split began in 1961, turning former partners into rivals. They competed fiercely for control of the global Communist movement. A serious possibility of major war existed during the early 1960s. In 1969, a brief border war erupted along their shared frontier. Relations remained poor until the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. Chairman Mao Zedong died in 1976, which slowly lessened the enmity but did not end it immediately.
Russia under President Boris Yeltsin initially prioritized ties with the West. He paid little attention to relations with China during his first term. Russian Foreign Minister Andrei Kozyrev criticized China's human rights policies during a visit there. The CCP considered Yeltsin a traitor yet decided to maintain pragmatic state relations. By summer 1992, Yeltsin shifted toward a less pro-Western foreign policy. On the 23rd of December 1992, he made his first official visit to China. He met with CCP General Secretary Jiang Zemin and Chinese President Yang Shangkun. They announced a joint declaration calling their nations friendly countries. The two sides signed twenty-five documents covering technology and space exploration.
Vladimir Putin succeeded Yeltsin as president of Russia in 2000. In 2001, both nations joined Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan in the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation. A month later, they formalized close relations through the Treaty of Good-Neighborliness and Friendly Cooperation. This treaty lasted for twenty years before being renewed in June 2021. On the 3rd of September 1994, officials signed an agreement on border management systems. A demarcation agreement fixed the boundary along a disputed 55-kilometer stretch. Further agreements were signed in November 1997 leaving only specific islands in dispute. The final transfer ceremony occurred on-site on the 14th of October 2008. It concluded the border dispute between the two nations after decades of tension.
China turned from a net exporter of petroleum to a net importer for the first time in 1993. By 2011, it had become the world's second-largest oil-consuming country. Russia offered natural gas and oil to meet this demand. In December 2003, CNPC and Sakhalin Energy signed a frame agreement on exploration. Gazprom and other firms expressed interest in Yuganskneftegaz. In February 2005, Chinese banks provided $6 billion financing for Rosneft acquisition. In 2014, Russia and China signed a 30-year gas deal worth $400 billion. Deliveries to China started in late 2019 via the Power of Siberia pipeline. As of 2024, crude oil from Russia accounted for almost 20% of China's total energy imports. On the 29th of October 2025, Shandong Yulong Petrochemical increased its Russian oil imports to a record 370,000, 405,000 barrels per day.
From 1992 to 1994, China bought 97% of its military imports from Russia. China spent $5 billion on Russian weaponry between 1993 and 1997. In 1992, Beijing contracted to purchase seventy-two Sukhoi Su-27 advanced fighter jets. The sale was finalized in December 1996. By early 2000s, Russia became a major supplier of equipment to China. From 2000 to 2006, Chinese military imports from Russia declined from $3.2 billion to near zero. Following deterioration with the West in 2014, Russia provided the S-400 missile system and twenty-four Sukhoi Su-35 fighter jets. In August 2005, countries held their first joint exercise named Peace Mission. Eight thousand troops of the PLA Army partnered with a 1,000-strong Russian naval contingent. In September 2018, Russia hosted the militaries of China and Mongolia as part of Vostok 2018.
Xi Jinping succeeded Hu Jintao as CCP General Secretary in November 2012. Putin and Xi met more than 40 times from 2013 to 2025. On the 4th of February 2022, they released a joint statement during a massive Russian build-up on the Ukrainian border. They declared relations superior to Cold War political and military alliances. During the invasion, China abstained from UN votes condemning the attack. It objected to international sanctions against Moscow. In March 2023, Xi visited Russia and met Putin both officially and unofficially. This was the first international meeting for Vladimir Putin since an arrest warrant was issued by the International Criminal Court. By May 2025, Xi attended the Moscow Victory Day Parade. A July 2025 meeting revealed fears that the United States could focus more on Asia once the European conflict ends.
In the 1990s, Chinese and Russian experts began cooperating on space exploration. They designed spacesuits and built the Shenzhou spacecraft together. Joint scientific projects increased in the 2000s including biotechnology and microelectronics. In March 2021, Roscosmos and the China National Space Administration signed an agreement for a joint lunar research station. However, tensions emerged regarding technology transfer. In December 2019, Rostec officials accused China of intellectual property theft. On the 30th of June 2022, Russian laser scientist Dmitry Kolker was arrested on suspicion of passing information to Beijing. In August 2022, hypersonic scientist Alexandr Shiplyuk was arrested for state treason. A leaked internal FSB memo from June 2025 raised concerns about industrial espionage targeting sensitive technologies.
Common questions
When was the Treaty of Nerchinsk signed between China and Russia?
The Treaty of Nerchinsk was signed in 1689. This agreement established a boundary that defined relations between the two nations for centuries.
What happened during the border war between China and Russia in 1969?
A brief border war erupted along their shared frontier in 1969. This conflict occurred after the Sino-Soviet split began in 1961 and turned former partners into rivals competing for control of the global Communist movement.
Who met with Chinese leaders on the 23rd of December 1992 to announce friendly relations?
President Boris Yeltsin met with CCP General Secretary Jiang Zemin and Chinese President Yang Shangkun on the 23rd of December 1992. They announced a joint declaration calling their nations friendly countries and signed twenty-five documents covering technology and space exploration.
When did the final transfer ceremony occur to conclude the border dispute between China and Russia?
The final transfer ceremony occurred on-site on the 14th of October 2008. This event concluded the border dispute between the two nations after decades of tension following agreements signed in November 1997.
How much was the gas deal worth that Russia and China signed in 2014?
Russia and China signed a 30-year gas deal worth $400 billion in 2014. Deliveries to China started in late 2019 via the Power of Siberia pipeline, and as of 2024, crude oil from Russia accounted for almost 20% of China's total energy imports.
What concerns were raised by an FSB memo regarding China and Russia in June 2025?
A leaked internal FSB memo from June 2025 raised concerns about industrial espionage targeting sensitive technologies. This followed arrests of Russian scientists including Dmitry Kolker and Alexandr Shiplyuk for passing information or state treason involving Beijing.