Chemical warfare

• 1. Defining Chemical Warfare

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  Chemical warfare involves using the toxic properties of chemical substances as weapons. This type of warfare is distinct from nuclear warfare, biological warfare and radiological warfare, which together make up CBRN, the military acronym for chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear (warfare or weapons), all of which are considered "weapons of mass destruction" (WMDs). The offensive use of living organisms such as anthrax is considered biological warfare rather than chemical warfare. However, the use of nonliving toxic products produced by living organisms like botulinum toxin, ricin, and saxitoxin is considered chemical warfare under the provisions of the Chemical Weapons Convention. Under this convention, any toxic chemical, regardless of its origin, is considered a chemical weapon unless it is used for purposes that are not prohibited. About 70 different chemicals have been used or were stockpiled as chemical warfare agents during the 20th century. The entire class, known as Lethal Unitary Chemical Agents and Munitions, has been scheduled for elimination by the CWC.

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• 2. Evolution of Agents

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  Simple chemical weapons were used sporadically throughout antiquity and into the Industrial Age. It was not until the 19th century that the modern conception of chemical warfare emerged, as various scientists and nations proposed the use of asphyxiating or poisonous gasses. Fritz Haber is considered the "father of chemical warfare" for his years of pioneering work developing and weaponizing chlorine and other poisonous gases during World War I. Germany, the first side to employ chemical warfare on the battlefield, simply opened canisters of chlorine upwind of the opposing side and let the prevailing winds do the dissemination. Soon after, the French modified artillery munitions to contain phosgene , a much more effective method that became the principal means of delivery. In July 1917, the Germans employed sulfur mustard. Mustard agents easily penetrate leather and fabric to inflict painful burns on the skin. Chemical warfare agents are divided into lethal and incapacitating categories. A substance is classified as incapacitating if less than 1/100 of the lethal dose causes incapacitation, e.g., through nausea or visual problems. The earliest target of chemical warfare agent research was not toxicity, but development of agents that can affect a target through the skin and clothing, rendering protective gas masks useless.

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• 3. World War I Implementation

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  Chlorine gas, among other chemicals, was used by both the Allied and Central powers to try to break the stalemate of trench warfare. Historians have reached a wide range of estimates on gas casualties, ranging from 500k to 1.3 million casualties directly caused by chemical warfare agents during the course of the war, of which 2-4% died. A minimum of around 1300 civilians were injured due to the use of the weapons, and at least around 4000 were injured during weapon production. Gas casualties were a small fraction of the overall human impact of the war, but the horrifying effects of such weapons gave them a strong psychological impact. The actual first chemical ammunition was the French 26 mm cartouche suffocante rifle grenade, fired from a flare carbine. It contained of the tear-producer ethyl bromoacetate, and was used in autumn 1914 , with little effect on the Germans. Hans Tappen, a chemist in the Heavy Artillery Department of the War Ministry, suggested to his brother, the Chief of the Operations Branch at German General Headquarters, the use of the tear-gases benzyl bromide or xylyl bromide. Shells were tested successfully at the Wahn artillery range near Cologne on the 9th of January 1915, and an order was placed for howitzer shells, designated 'T-shells' after Tappen.

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• 4. Global Stockpiles and Destruction

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  In 1997, future US Vice President Dick Cheney opposed the signing ratification of a treaty banning the use of chemical weapons, a recently unearthed letter shows. In a letter dated the 8th of April 1997, then Halliburton-CEO Cheney told Sen. Jesse Helms, the chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, that it would be a mistake for America to join the convention. "Those nations most likely to comply with the Chemical Weapons Convention are not likely to ever constitute a military threat to the United States." The CWC was ratified by the Senate that same month. In the following years, Albania, Libya, Russia, the United States, and India declared over 71,000 metric tons of chemical weapon stockpiles, and destroyed a third of them. Under the terms of the agreement, the United States and Russia agreed to eliminate the rest of their supplies of chemical weapons by 2012, but ended up taking far longer to do so as shown in the previous and following section of this article. As August 2013, 76 percent (30,500 tons) were destroyed, and Russia leaves the Cooperative Threat Reduction (CTR) Program, which partially funded chemical weapons destruction. In September 2017, OPCW announced that Russia had destroyed its entire chemical weapons stockpile.

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• 5. Modern Conflicts and Prohibitions

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  The Ba'athist regime in Syria used sarin, chlorine, and mustard gas in numerous deadly chemical attacks against civilian populations during the Syrian civil war. During the Russian invasion of Ukraine, Russia has been reported to deploy CS gas through K-51 grenades dropped by unmanned drones. On the 13th of December 2024, the Ukrainian military stated that over 4,800 incidents involving chemical weapons against Ukrainian forces have been recorded since the war began, which resulted in over 2,000 Ukrainian soldiers having been hospitalized, and 3 deaths. The use of gas was often hidden by heavy Russian "intense artillery, rocket, and bomb attacks", forcing Ukrainian soldiers out of their positions. They saw less use of chemical gas in cold weather, as it reduced the effectiveness of the K-51 gas grenades. A recent US aid package to Ukraine included "nuclear, chemical and radiological protective equipment". The Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons oversees implementation of the CWC from its base in The Hague.

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