Biological warfare
Hittite texts from 1500 to 1200 BC record the earliest documented intent to use biological weapons. Victims of an unknown plague, possibly tularemia, were driven into enemy lands to cause epidemics. Assyrians poisoned enemy wells with the fungus ergot during ancient conflicts. Scythian archers dipped their arrows into excrements and cadavers before battle. Roman soldiers followed this tactic by dipping swords into similar filth. Tetanus infections commonly resulted for those struck by these contaminated blades. In 1346, Mongol warriors of the Golden Horde died of plague near Kaffa. Their bodies were thrown over the walls of the besieged Crimean city. Specialists debate whether this operation spread the Black Death across Europe and North Africa. Estimates suggest approximately 25 million Europeans perished in the resulting pandemic.
World War I saw German saboteurs use anthrax and glanders against cavalry horses in the United States and France. Anton Dilger led one such attack on livestock bound for Germany. French operatives infected Burkholderia bacteria onto horses destined for Germany while they passed through Switzerland. The Ministry of Supply in the United Kingdom established a biological warfare program at Porton Down in 1939. Microbiologist Paul Fildes headed this research effort. Winston Churchill championed the development of tularemia, anthrax, brucellosis, and botulism toxins. Gruinard Island in Scotland became contaminated with anthrax during extensive tests lasting 56 years. The United States entered the war and pooled resources with Allied forces. George W. Merck directed a large research program at Fort Detrick, Maryland, starting in 1942. Mass production facilities for anthrax spores and botulism toxins emerged before the war ended.
Lieutenant General Shirō Ishii commanded Unit 731, a secret Imperial Japanese Army unit based at Pingfang in Manchuria. This facility conducted fatal human experiments on prisoners to develop biological weapons. In 1940, the Japanese Army Air Force bombed Ningbo with ceramic bombs full of fleas carrying bubonic plague. Up to 200,000 people may have died from these operations despite their inefficiency. During the Zhejiang-Jiangxi Campaign in 1942, around 1,700 Japanese troops fell ill when their own biological attacks rebounded. Plans existed to use plague against US civilians in San Diego during Operation Cherry Blossoms at Night. The plan was set to launch on the 22nd of September 1945 but never executed due to Japan's surrender. The Soviet Union continued its massive offensive biological weapons program under Biopreparat after World War II. International suspicion grew following the 1979 Sverdlovsk anthrax leak that killed approximately 65 to 100 people.
US President Richard Nixon decided to unilaterally terminate the offensive biological weapons program of the United States in 1969. Only scientific research for defensive measures remained allowed under this new policy. These negotiations increased momentum for a ban on biological warfare taking place from 1969 to 1972 in Geneva. The Biological Weapons Convention opened for signature on the 10th of April 1972 and entered into force on the 26th of March 1975. It became the first multilateral disarmament treaty to ban production of an entire category of weapons of mass destruction. As of March 2021, 183 states had become party to the treaty. The 1925 Geneva Protocol prohibited use but not possession or development of chemical and biological weapons. Several countries made reservations regarding applicability upon ratification, creating a no-first-use agreement in practice. The Australia Group formed in 1985 as a multilateral export control regime of 43 countries. United Nations Security Council Resolution 1540 passed in 2004 obligating all member states to prevent spread to non-state actors.
Biological weapons cost about 0.05 percent of conventional weapon costs to produce similar numbers of mass casualties per square kilometer. Common technology can be used to produce agents like those found in vaccine or food production facilities. Terrorists can easily escape before government agencies start investigations due to incubation periods of 3 to 7 days. Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeat technology is now cheap and widely available for experimentation. Scientists fear amateurs will begin experimenting with DNA sequences that code for particular proteins. A major factor attracting terrorists is the ability to escape before investigation begins. In 2002, CNN examined Al-Qaeda experiments with crude poisons and found planning for ricin attacks. Twenty-three potential exposures of select biological agents outside primary barriers occurred in the US according to annual reports. About 95% of accidents involving low security were done by employees or those with clearance.
Many countries require active-duty military personnel to get vaccinated for diseases potentially used as bioweapons such as anthrax and smallpox. The largest known biological weapons accident involved sheep becoming ill with anthrax far from a release point in Sverdlovsk. Robust surveillance systems involving human clinicians and veterinarians may identify an attack early in an epidemic course. Public health officials recognize virtually unique chest X-ray findings within 24 to 36 hours after exposure. More than 80% of exposed populations can receive antibiotic treatment before becoming symptomatic if data reaches local officials in real time. Task Force Scorpio activated during the first Gulf War to respond to potential use of weapons of mass destruction on civilians. Researchers at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory developed sandwich immunoassays using fluorescent dye-labeled antibodies attached to silver nanowires. Bioaerosol Single Particle Recognition equipment designed by TNO would implement into national response plans for bioweapon attacks in the Netherlands.
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Common questions
When did the earliest documented intent to use biological weapons occur?
Hittite texts from 1500 to 1200 BC record the earliest documented intent to use biological weapons. Victims of an unknown plague were driven into enemy lands to cause epidemics during this period.
What happened at Kaffa in 1346 regarding biological warfare?
Mongol warriors of the Golden Horde died of plague near Kaffa and their bodies were thrown over the walls of the besieged Crimean city. This operation may have spread the Black Death across Europe and North Africa, causing approximately 25 million Europeans to perish.
Who commanded Unit 731 and what experiments did they conduct?
Lieutenant General Shirō Ishii commanded Unit 731, a secret Imperial Japanese Army unit based at Pingfang in Manchuria. This facility conducted fatal human experiments on prisoners to develop biological weapons.
When did the Biological Weapons Convention enter into force?
The Biological Weapons Convention opened for signature on the 10th of April 1972 and entered into force on the 26th of March 1975. It became the first multilateral disarmament treaty to ban production of an entire category of weapons of mass destruction.
How much do biological weapons cost compared to conventional weapons?
Biological weapons cost about 0.05 percent of conventional weapon costs to produce similar numbers of mass casualties per square kilometer. Common technology can be used to produce agents like those found in vaccine or food production facilities.