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— CH. 1 · INTRODUCTION —

Zinc

13 min listen · Ch. 1 of 7
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  • Zinc is the only metal that appears in every single enzyme class in the human body. That one fact hints at how deeply this element is woven into the fabric of living things. It sits at atomic number 30 on the periodic table, its symbol Zn derived from a word the alchemist Paracelsus chose in the 16th century. But zinc was shaping civilizations long before anyone knew what to call it. Brass, the copper-zinc alloy, was in use as far back as the third millennium BC across the Aegean and through the lands that are now Iraq, the United Arab Emirates, and Georgia. Pure metallic zinc, though, took far longer to tame. What were the ancient peoples working with if not the metal itself? How did a substance so central to human biology remain chemically obscure for so long? And what happens to the world when two billion people do not get enough of it?

  • Judean brass from between the 14th and 10th centuries BC contains 23% zinc, yet the people who made it had no idea they were working with two distinct metals. Zinc has a boiling point of only 907 degrees Celsius, far below the temperatures of a copper smelting furnace, so the zinc simply vaporized and vanished before anyone could isolate it. What remained was brass, an alloy that seemed to emerge almost magically from heating copper with certain ores.

    Ornaments containing 80-90% zinc, alloyed with lead, iron, antimony, and other metals, have been found dating to roughly 2,500 years ago. A possibly prehistoric statuette containing 87.5% zinc was recovered from a Dacian archaeological site. The writer Strabo, in the 1st century BC, quoted the 4th century BC historian Theopompus describing "drops of false silver" that when mixed with copper produced brass. Those drops were almost certainly zinc.

    The Romans manufactured brass by heating powdered calamine (zinc silicate or carbonate), charcoal, and copper together in a crucible. They used the resulting calamine brass in weaponry. Some Roman coins from the Christian era appear to be made of the same material. The oldest known pills, made from the zinc carbonates hydrozincite and smithsonite, were found aboard the Roman ship Relitto del Pozzino, which sank in 140 BC. Those pills were used for sore eyes.

    Meanwhile, in India, a completely different relationship with zinc was developing. The Charaka Samhita, thought to have been written between 300 and 500 AD, mentions a metal whose oxidized form was called pushpanjan, believed to be zinc oxide. Zinc mines at Zawar, near Udaipur, had been active since the Mauryan period, which stretched between roughly 322 and 187 BC.

  • Zawar, in Rajasthan, holds what may be the oldest definitive evidence of intentional zinc production, with archaeological remains pointing back to the 6th century BC. The oldest man-made pure zinc from that site dates to the 9th century AD, produced through a distillation process. Between the 12th and 16th centuries, one estimate puts total production at Zawar at around a million tonnes of metallic zinc and zinc oxide; another estimate gives 60,000 tonnes of metallic zinc over that same span.

    Alchemists across Europe and Asia encountered zinc oxide repeatedly, calling it lana philosophica (philosopher's wool) because it collected in woolly tufts when zinc was burned in air, or nix album (white snow) for its pale appearance. The Rasaratna Samuccaya, written around the 13th century AD in India, distinguished two types of zinc-containing ores: one for metal extraction, one for medicine.

    Metallic zinc was isolated in India by 1300 AD. It was being imported into Europe from the Orient by around 1600 AD, though at times it was very expensive. In 1668, the Flemish metallurgist P. M. de Respour claimed to have extracted metallic zinc from zinc oxide. In 1738, the British inventor William Champion patented a vertical retort-style smelting process, whose technique resembled the approach used at Zawar, though no evidence suggests he ever visited South Asia. Champion's process stayed in use through 1851.

    German chemist Andreas Marggraf is officially credited with isolating pure metallic zinc in the West in 1746, heating calamine and charcoal in a closed vessel without copper. Swedish chemist Anton von Swab had actually distilled zinc from calamine four years earlier, but Marggraf's 1746 experiment became commercially practical by 1752. By 1800, Luigi Galvani and Alessandro Volta had uncovered zinc's electrochemical properties, with Volta's pile in 1800 using paired zinc and copper plates to produce a sustained electric current.

  • Zinc burns in air with a bright bluish-green flame, leaving behind plumes of zinc oxide. At room temperature it is slightly brittle, but between 100 and 150 degrees Celsius it becomes malleable enough to work. Above 210 degrees Celsius it turns brittle again and can be pulverized by beating. Its melting point of 419.53 degrees Celsius is the lowest of all the d-block metals except mercury and cadmium, which is part of why it was so elusive for ancient metallurgists.

    Zinc makes up about 70 parts per million of Earth's crust by mass, sitting at 24th among crustal elements. In the Solar System it is the 22nd most abundant element at 312 parts per million. The most common zinc ore is sphalerite, a crystalline zinc sulfide that contains 60-62% zinc by mass and accounts for 95% of all new zinc mining globally. The world's currently identified zinc resources total between 1.9 and 2.8 billion tonnes, with the largest potential reserves in Iran.

    Zinc has five stable isotopes. Zn-64 is the most abundant, making up 49.17% of all naturally occurring zinc. The element also has several dozen radioisotopes and 10 nuclear isomers. One isotope, Zn-64, is highly susceptible to neutron activation: in a nuclear reactor it transforms into a highly radioactive isotope with a half-life of 244 days that produces intense gamma radiation. For this reason, zinc oxide used in nuclear reactors is deliberately depleted of Zn-64 before use, a product called depleted zinc oxide.

    Chemically, zinc almost always appears in the +2 oxidation state. Its ionic radius is nearly identical to that of magnesium, which means the two elements share crystal structures in some of their equivalent salts and overlap in their chemical behavior in ways that have surprised researchers.

  • In 2009-55% of all zinc consumed in the United States, amounting to 893,000 tons, went into galvanization: the coating of iron and steel with a thin layer of zinc to prevent rust. The logic is elegant. Zinc is more reactive than iron or steel, so it attracts oxidation to itself first, corroding slowly while the underlying metal stays intact. That protection persists even after the zinc surface is scratched. Galvanization covers chain-link fencing, guard rails, suspension bridges, lightposts, heat exchangers, and car bodies.

    Zinc's reactivity also makes it a reliable sacrificial anode in cathodic protection systems. A zinc disc attached to a ship's iron rudder will corrode away gradually, keeping the rudder intact. Zinc anodes connected to buried pipelines do the same work underground. The concept traces back to Luigi Galvani's 1780 discovery, when he connected the spinal cord of a freshly dissected frog to an iron rail hooked with brass and watched the leg twitch. Galvani incorrectly attributed the effect to "animal electricity", but Alessandro Volta pursued the real explanation and built the first battery.

    Brass, the zinc-copper alloy, accounts for 16% of US zinc consumption. Copper is alloyed with anywhere from 3% to 45% zinc depending on the type of brass needed; the resulting material is generally more ductile and stronger than copper alone, with superior corrosion resistance. Brass appears in communication equipment, musical instruments, and water valves. A separate alloy called Prestal, containing 78% zinc and 22% aluminium, is reported to be nearly as strong as steel but as malleable as plastic, allowing it to be molded using dies made of ceramics and cement.

    Since 1982, the American one-cent coin has been primarily zinc, with a thin copper coating giving the appearance of a copper coin. In 1994-33,200 tonnes of zinc were used to produce 13.6 billion pennies in the United States alone.

  • Roughly 2-4 grams of zinc are distributed through the adult human body at any given moment. The highest concentrations sit in the prostate and parts of the eye. Semen is particularly rich in zinc, tied directly to prostate gland function and reproductive organ growth. In the brain, zinc is stored in specific synaptic vesicles by glutamatergic neurons and plays a key role in synaptic plasticity and learning.

    Zinc is required for the function of over 300 enzymes and 1,000 transcription factors. A 2015 review estimated that roughly 10% of all human proteins, approximately 3,000 in total, bind zinc. In vertebrate blood, the zinc-containing enzyme carbonic anhydrase converts carbon dioxide into bicarbonate and then reverses that reaction for exhalation. Without carbonic anhydrase, that conversion would occur about one million times slower at normal blood pH. The enzyme carboxypeptidase, identified as the second known zinc-containing enzyme in 1955, cleaves peptide linkages during protein digestion.

    The brain's zinc homeostasis is especially delicate. Excessive synaptic zinc concentrations are believed to trigger neurotoxicity through mitochondrial oxidative stress, disrupting enzymes involved in the electron transport chain, destabilizing calcium homeostasis, and interfering with intraneuronal signaling. The human dopamine transporter contains a high-affinity extracellular zinc binding site: when zinc binds there, it inhibits dopamine reuptake and amplifies the effects of amphetamine on dopamine release.

    Zinc also plays a structural role inside the nucleus through zinc finger proteins. Each zinc finger uses nine or ten zinc ions to hold its shape, allowing the finger to bind specific DNA base sequences during replication and transcription. Zinc fingers form parts of transcription factors found across virtually all living organisms, reflecting how early in evolutionary history this element became essential.

  • Nearly two billion people in the developing world are deficient in zinc. In children, that deficiency causes growth retardation, delayed sexual maturation, increased susceptibility to infection, and diarrhea, and contributes to the deaths of about 800,000 children per year worldwide. The World Health Organization advocates zinc supplementation for severe malnutrition and diarrhea.

    A 1994 clinical trial found that zinc supplementation doubled the rate of body mass increase in patients being treated for anorexia nervosa. A meta-analysis of 33 prospective intervention trials covering children in many countries confirmed that zinc supplementation alone produced statistically significant improvements in both linear growth and body weight gain. A 10-to-14-day course of zinc treatment can reduce the duration and severity of diarrheal episodes in children and may prevent future episodes for up to three months.

    Excessive zinc, however, causes its own problems. Taking between 100 and 300 mg daily can induce copper deficiency. A 2007 trial found that elderly men taking 80 mg daily were hospitalized for urinary complications more often than those on a placebo. The FDA ordered removal of zinc-based intranasal cold products from store shelves on the 16th of June 2009, after reports that zinc damages nerve receptors in the nose and can cause permanent loss of smell. The agency noted the loss of smell can be life-threatening because affected people cannot detect gas leaks, smoke, or spoiled food.

    In marine environments, particularly polar regions, zinc deficits can compromise the vitality of primary algal communities and destabilize marine food webs. In industrial areas, rivers can carry zinc at concentrations up to 20 parts per million, which adversely affects fish at levels as low as 2 parts per million. Zinc emissions from mining and smelting totaled about 10,000 tonnes per year two thousand years ago; that figure peaked at 3.4 million tonnes per year in the 1980s before declining to 2.7 million tonnes in the 1990s, though a 2005 study of the Arctic troposphere found that those concentrations had not yet reflected the decline.

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Common questions

What is zinc used for in everyday life?

Zinc is most commonly used as a galvanizing agent to coat iron and steel against corrosion, accounting for 55% of US zinc consumption in 2009. It also appears in brass alloys, alkaline batteries, zinc oxide sunscreens, anti-dandruff shampoos containing zinc pyrithione, and as the primary metal in American pennies since 1982.

Why is zinc important for human health?

Zinc is required for the function of over 300 enzymes and 1,000 transcription factors and is the only metal that appears in all enzyme classes. Roughly 2-4 grams are distributed through the adult human body, with key roles in immune function, DNA replication, protein digestion, carbon dioxide regulation, and synaptic plasticity in the brain.

When was zinc first isolated as a pure metal?

Metallic zinc was isolated in India by 1300 AD, using a distillation process developed at Zawar in Rajasthan, with the oldest known man-made pure zinc from that site dating to the 9th century AD. In Europe, German chemist Andreas Marggraf isolated pure metallic zinc in 1746, and his procedure became commercially practical by 1752.

What is zinc deficiency and how common is it?

Zinc deficiency affects nearly two billion people in the developing world. In children it causes growth retardation, delayed sexual maturation, increased infection susceptibility, and diarrhea, contributing to the deaths of about 800,000 children per year worldwide. Deficiency is most common in populations with low dietary intake of animal products or high consumption of phytate-rich foods that block zinc absorption.

Where does the word zinc come from?

The name is attributed to Paracelsus, a Swiss-born German alchemist, who referred to the metal as zincum or zinken in his 16th-century book Liber Mineralium II. The word is most likely derived from the German zinke, meaning tooth-like, pointed, or jagged, describing the needle-like appearance of metallic zinc crystals.

What are the main zinc-producing countries in the world?

China is by far the largest producer, accounting for 4,000,000 tonnes in 2023, followed by Peru at 1,400,000 tonnes and Australia at 1,100,000 tonnes. Large zinc deposits also exist in Canada and the United States, while Iran holds the largest potential reserves yet identified.

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All sources

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