Bicameralism
In 1946, the state of Nebraska became the only U.S. state to abolish its upper house and operate as a unicameral legislature with just 43 members. This decision marked a sharp departure from the global norm where roughly 40% of national legislatures remain divided into two separate chambers. Bicameralism requires that primary legislation pass through both an Upper Chamber and a Lower Chamber before becoming law. When both houses hold equal power to block bills, political scientists call this perfect bicameralism. Many systems instead allow one chamber to overrule the other, creating what is known as imperfect bicameralism. The House of Commons in the United Kingdom can override the House of Lords under specific conditions defined by the Parliament Acts of 1911 and 1949. Some legislatures sit between these extremes, allowing one house to dominate only under certain circumstances or for specific types of bills.
The British Parliament first split into two distinct groups in 1341 when the Commons met separately from the nobility and clergy. This division created an effective Upper Chamber and a Lower Chamber with knights and burgesses sitting together in the latter body. By 1544, the Upper Chamber had officially become known as the House of Lords while the Lower Chamber took the name House of Commons. Benjamin Rush observed during the American founding era that such a system was almost always connected with opulence. James Madison argued that the Senate should proceed with more coolness, wisdom, and system than the popular branch could manage. State legislators originally chose Senators who were required to possess significant property to be deemed worthy of the position. The Seventeenth Amendment passed in 1913 changed this process by mandating that Senators be chosen by popular vote rather than state legislatures. Most European countries and Commonwealth nations abolished their upper houses during the twentieth century after ending monarchies.
Federal states often adopt bicameralism as an awkward compromise between equal power held by each territory and proportional representation based on population. Critics argue that having two chambers makes meaningful political reforms difficult to achieve and increases the risk of gridlock. Proponents counter that the model provides essential checks and balances against ill-considered legislation. In Italy, the government must win confidence votes in both the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies, which has caused legislative deadlocks and instability. The Australian Senate maintains the ability to block supply against the government, a power similar to that once held by the British House of Lords before 1911. A government unable to obtain supply can be dismissed by the governor-general, though this is considered a last resort decision. The relationship between chambers varies from equal power in federal systems to clear superiority for the lower house in unitary parliamentary states.
Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Brazil, Canada, Germany, India, Malaysia, Mexico, Nepal, Nigeria, Pakistan, Russia, Switzerland, and the United States all link their bicameral systems to federal political structures. In countries like Australia and the United States, each state or province receives the same number of seats in one chamber regardless of population variance. The German Bundesrat gives various Länder between three and six votes, meaning less populated states have stronger voting power than proportional systems would allow. The Indian upper house does not represent states equally but bases representation on population size instead. South Africa's National Council of Provinces chooses members through each province's legislature rather than direct election. Spain's Senate functions as a de facto territorially based upper house with pressure from Autonomous Communities to reform it into a strictly territorial chamber. The European Union maintains a system resembling bicameralism with the European Parliament elected by universal suffrage and the Council of the European Union representing member governments.
The British House of Lords remains the best known example of bicameralism mixing democratic and aristocratic elements. Hereditary peers were limited to 92 members by the House of Lords Act 1999 after previously numbering around 700. Of these 92, one is the Earl Marshal held by the Duke of Norfolk while another is the Lord Great Chamberlain held by Baron Carrington. The remaining 90 hereditary peers are elected by all sitting peers to serve for life until death or resignation. Life Peers are appointed either by recommendation of the Appointment Commission or through Dissolution Honours at the end of every Parliamentary term. Twenty-six Archbishops and Bishops of the Church of England sit as Lords Spiritual including the Archbishop of Canterbury and the Bishop of London. As of the 16th of February 2021, 803 people sat in the House of Lords comprising 92 Hereditary Peers, 26 Lords Spiritual, and 685 Life Peers. Japan's former House of Peers was abolished after World War II and replaced with the present House of Councillors.
Only eight out of twenty-four provinces in Argentina still maintain bicameral legislatures with a Senate and Chamber of Deputies. Tucumán and Córdoba changed to unicameral systems in 1990 and 2001 respectively while Santiago del Estero switched back from bicameral to unicameral in 1903. Queensland in Australia abolished its appointed upper house in 1922 before other states reformed theirs in the 1970s to introduce proportional representation. The South Australian Legislative Council adopted party list systems in 1973 followed by Single Transferable Vote in 1982. Tasmania reversed the pattern by using proportional representation for its lower house and single member electorates for its upper house. Six of India's thirty-six states or Union Territories have bicameral legislatures including Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Telangana, and Uttar Pradesh. One-third of members in these councils are elected by local bodies like municipalities and block development councils while another third come from state legislative assemblies.
A 2005 report on democratic reform in the Arab world urged Arab states to adopt bicameralism with upper chambers appointed on a specialized basis to protect against tyranny of the majority. Bahrain adopted a bicameral system in 2002 leading to an election boycott by the Al Wefaq party who claimed the government would use the upper house to veto their plans. A referendum held in Romania on the 22nd of November 2009 saw 77.78% vote Yes for a unicameral Parliament though the result required further ratification. Ivory Coast held a constitutional referendum on the 30th of October 2016 creating a bicameral Parliament where two-thirds of Senators are elected alongside general elections. Georgia adopted a provision in 2017 to shift to bicameralism once it restores jurisdiction over Russian-occupied territories. The last region to switch from bicameralism to unicameralism was Sverdlovsk Oblast in Russia in 2012. Bavaria abolished its Senate through a referendum in 1999 after operating as a bicameral legislature since 1946.
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Common questions
When did Nebraska become the only U.S. state to operate as a unicameral legislature?
In 1946, the state of Nebraska became the only U.S. state to abolish its upper house and operate as a unicameral legislature with just 43 members.
What is bicameralism and how does it function in national legislatures?
Bicameralism requires that primary legislation pass through both an Upper Chamber and a Lower Chamber before becoming law. When both houses hold equal power to block bills, political scientists call this perfect bicameralism while many systems instead allow one chamber to overrule the other creating imperfect bicameralism.
How did the British Parliament split into two distinct groups historically?
The British Parliament first split into two distinct groups in 1341 when the Commons met separately from the nobility and clergy. By 1544, the Upper Chamber had officially become known as the House of Lords while the Lower Chamber took the name House of Commons.
Which countries link their bicameral systems to federal political structures today?
Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Brazil, Canada, Germany, India, Malaysia, Mexico, Nepal, Nigeria, Pakistan, Russia, Switzerland, and the United States all link their bicameral systems to federal political structures. In countries like Australia and the United States each state or province receives the same number of seats in one chamber regardless of population variance.
What is the current composition of the British House of Lords as of February 2021?
As of the 16th of February 2021, 803 people sat in the House of Lords comprising 92 Hereditary Peers, 26 Lords Spiritual, and 685 Life Peers. Hereditary peers were limited to 92 members by the House of Lords Act 1999 after previously numbering around 700.
When did Sverdlovsk Oblast switch from bicameralism to unicameralism?
The last region to switch from bicameralism to unicameralism was Sverdlovsk Oblast in Russia in 2012. Bavaria abolished its Senate through a referendum in 1999 after operating as a bicameral legislature since 1946.