Aniconism
The word aniconism derives from the Greek term eikon meaning image combined with a negative prefix. This linguistic root establishes a cultural absence of artistic representations for natural or supernatural worlds. Prohibitions may target only a supreme deity or extend to entire pantheons and living beings generally. When such prohibitions are enforced through physical destruction, the practice transforms into iconoclasm. Historical phases in Buddhism and Christianity show these movements were largely rejected over time. By contrast Islam has predominantly remained aniconistic throughout its history including depictions of major figures like Muhammad. The view of aniconism in Judaism faces challenges from medieval Ashkenazi illuminated manuscripts collected by David Kaufmann. Ancient Greek religion began rich in aniconic representation despite heavy anthropomorphism in mythology.
Since the 1890s scholars described the earliest phase of Buddhist art as lasting until the first century CE. During this period the Buddha appeared only through symbols like empty thrones Bodhi trees or footprints. Scenes often featured crowded surroundings yet maintained an empty space at their center. An ancient rule written in the Sarvastivada vinaya prohibited images of the Buddha's body in human form. The Buddha answered requests to make images of attendant Bodhisattvas by granting permission instead. First anthropomorphic representations frequently resulted from Greco-Buddhist interaction particularly widespread in Gandhara. Alfred A. Foucher fully expounded this theory while Ananda Coomaraswamy criticized it from the start. In 1990 Susan Huntington challenged the notion of aniconism initiating a vigorous debate among specialists. She argued many early scenes claimed to be aniconic actually depicted worship of relics or re-enactments by devotees. Archaeological evidence shows some anthropomorphic sculptures existed during the supposedly aniconistic period ending in the first century CE.
Two periods of iconoclasm occurred within the Byzantine Empire during the mid eighth and early ninth centuries. Political aspects involved complex relationships between Emperors Catholic Church Orthodox Church councils and the Pope. Theologically debates revolved around the two natures of Jesus as divine and human simultaneously. Iconoclasts believed icons could not represent both natures without creating heretical mixed natures like Monophysitism. Reference was made to prohibitions on graven images found in the Law of Moses. During the Protestant Reformation some Protestants began rejecting what they perceived as idolatrous Catholic practices. Churches filled with pictures statues or relics of saints faced aggressive campaigns of destruction. The Beeldenstorm in the Netherlands in 1566 stands as perhaps the most famous example targeting still Catholic churches. Modern Amish communities often prefer not having their photo taken due to biblical commandments about graven images. Jehovah's Witnesses prohibit wearing religious themed jewelry displaying icons such as the cross as idol worship is forbidden.
The Quran does not explicitly prohibit depiction of human figures but condemns idolatry instead. Interdictions appear in Hadith recorded during the latter part of when they were being written down. Sunni exegetes from the ninth century onward increasingly saw categorical prohibitions against producing representations of living beings. Aniconism remains common among fundamentalist Sunni sects such as Salafis and Wahhabis while less prevalent among liberal movements. Shi'a and mystical orders hold less stringent views on aniconic doctrine. In practice core normative religion consistently remains aniconic embodied by spaces like mosques or objects like the Qur'an. Profane aniconism fluctuates significantly depending on epoch country political intent and popular beliefs. Statues of humans and animals adorned palaces of the Ummayad era while frescoes were common under various dynasties. Figurative miniatures from Medieval Arabic countries India Persia and Turkey account for much of Islamic art attraction. Potent rulers like Shah Tahmasp in Persia and Akbar in India migrated between extravagant figurative and extremist aniconic periods. Neither representation of living beings nor current technology explains these historical shifts in Muslim societies.
David Kaufmann marshalled extensive data to prove that Judaism is not strictly aniconic as previously believed. He published his first article using the term Jewish art in 1878 establishing a scholarly discipline of Jewish art history. Samuel Krauss wrote in 1901 refuting belief in an aniconistic form of Judaism generally. Kalman Bland proposed that Jewish aniconism crystallized simultaneously with construction of modern Jewish identities. Some Middle Ages illustrations feature fantastic creatures known as zoocephalic figures usually animal-headed humanoids. The German Birds' Head Haggadah serves as a well-known example despite unclear reasons for this style. The Ambrosian Bible or Tanakh of 1236 contains figural representations including Adam Eve Abraham Isaac Jacob Moses Solomon David. Orthodox Halakha interprets verses prohibiting creation of certain types of graven images whether used as idols or not. Joseph Karo writes it is forbidden to make complete solid or raised images of people or angels except for study purposes. Illustrations from the Middle Ages of zoocephalic figures do not violate prohibition because such creatures like griffins and harpies do not actually exist.
In Africa aniconism varies from culture to culture ranging from elaborate masks to total absence of material shapes. A common feature across the continent involves refusal to give the High God any material shape. Roman historian Tacitus wrote about Germanic tribes stating they did not consider it mighty enough to depict Gods on walls. His observation was not general to all Germanic peoples as documentary evidence suggests regarding Ardre image stones. Ancient Etruscan religion featured dii involuti or veiled gods who were never named or depicted until Greek influences arrived. An Etruscan divination calendar describes being visited with visions of god faces as a negative event. In some Australian Aboriginal cultural groups naming and depiction of recently deceased people is often prohibited under customary law. The mourning period may last weeks months or years believing that depicting them inhibits passage to Great Dreaming of Ancestors. Prohibition does not apply to depiction of non-Aboriginal people who are deceased. Bahá'í Faith prohibits depictions of God while photographs and depictions of Báb and Bahá'u'lláh remain precious objects handled with reverence.
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Common questions
What is the origin of the word aniconism?
The word aniconism derives from the Greek term eikon meaning image combined with a negative prefix. This linguistic root establishes a cultural absence of artistic representations for natural or supernatural worlds.
When did scholars describe the earliest phase of Buddhist art as lasting until the first century CE?
Since the 1890s scholars described the earliest phase of Buddhist art as lasting until the first century CE. During this period the Buddha appeared only through symbols like empty thrones Bodhi trees or footprints.
During which centuries did two periods of iconoclasm occur within the Byzantine Empire?
Two periods of iconoclasm occurred within the Byzantine Empire during the mid eighth and early ninth centuries. Political aspects involved complex relationships between Emperors Catholic Church Orthodox Church councils and the Pope.
Who published the first article using the term Jewish art in 1878?
David Kaufmann marshalled extensive data to prove that Judaism is not strictly aniconic as previously believed. He published his first article using the term Jewish art in 1878 establishing a scholarly discipline of Jewish art history.
What does Roman historian Tacitus state about Germanic tribes regarding their gods?
Roman historian Tacitus wrote about Germanic tribes stating they did not consider it mighty enough to depict Gods on walls. His observation was not general to all Germanic peoples as documentary evidence suggests regarding Ardre image stones.