Aftermath of World War I

• 1. The Blockade And Civilian Suffering

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  Through the period from the 11th of November 1918 until the 28th of June 1919, Allied naval forces maintained a strict blockade of Germany. This policy continued even after the fighting stopped on the battlefield. The German economy relied heavily on imported food and raw materials to survive. Historians estimate that around half a million civilians died during this eight-month window due to starvation and disease. N. P. Howard of the University of Sheffield calculated that a quarter of a million excess deaths occurred in the months following the conflict's conclusion. Forty percent of these deaths took place specifically in November 1918. Robert Leckie wrote in Delivered from Evil that the blockade did much to torment the Germans. He described how it drove them with the fury of despair into the arms of the devil. The Armistice terms allowed for some food shipments but required Germany to provide its own shipping capacity. The German government could not secure a loan from the United States to purchase necessary goods. They were forced to use their gold reserves to pay for imports. Sally Marks noted that while Allied warships remained in place, Germany refused to allow its ships to carry supplies. An Allied task force established in early 1919 helped feed the population by May. France provided specific food shipments to Bavaria and the Rhineland during those early months. Elisabeth Gläser claims the German government delayed relief efforts by refusing to surrender their merchant fleet. The success of later relief efforts deprived the Allies of a credible threat to induce signing. Yet for eight months, some form of blockade was continually in place. Contemporary estimates suggest an additional 100,000 civilian casualties resulted from starvation.

• 2. Treaty Of Versailles And Territorial Redraws

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  The Paris Peace Conference concluded with the signing of the Treaty of Versailles on the 28th of June 1919. This document officially ended the state of war between Germany and the Allied powers including France, Italy, and Britain. The treaty contained 440 articles demanding Germany accept responsibility for all loss and damage caused by the conflict. It required Germany to pay massive economic reparations totaling 132 billion gold marks. Only 50 billion marks actually had to be paid under the final terms. The agreement drastically limited the German military machine to just 100,000 troops. Germany was forbidden from possessing tanks, warships, warplanes, or submarines. Its capital ships were scuttled by crews at Scapa Flow to prevent capture. The treaty forced Germany to permanently reduce its army size and destroy its air force. Territory changed hands across Europe as borders were redrawn. Germany lost land to Denmark, Czechoslovakia, Belgium, and France. A larger portion went to a reestablished Poland. The city of Danzig became part of this new Polish state. East Prussia was separated from the rest of Germany creating great outrage among nationalists. President Woodrow Wilson warned that excessively harsh punishment would breed resentment. He advocated for peace without victory in his Fourteen Points speech. Marshal Ferdinand Foch observed after hearing the terms that it was not peace but an armistice for twenty years. French Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau aimed to ensure Germany could never seek revenge again. The destruction on French territory needed indemnification through these reparations. This financial imperative dominated French foreign policy throughout the 1920s. It led to the occupation of the Ruhr in 1923 to force payment. Germany obtained support from the United States when unable to pay. The Dawes Plan was negotiated after Raymond Poincaré's occupation of the Ruhr. The Young Plan followed in 1929.

• 3. Collapse Of Empires And New Nations

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  Four empires collapsed due to the war: the Ottoman, Austro-Hungarian, Russian, and German empires. Old countries were abolished while new ones formed across Europe and Asia. Poland re-emerged as an independent country after 123 years of partition. The Kingdom of Serbia became the backbone of a new multinational state called Yugoslavia. Czechoslovakia formed from Bohemia, Moravia, Opava Silesia, and western parts of Upper Hungary. Romania united all Romanian-speaking people under Greater Romania. Finland gained lasting independence though it fought the Soviet Union repeatedly during the Winter War. Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania declared independence from Russia but were later occupied by the Soviet Union in 1940. Armenia, Georgia, and Azerbaijan established themselves as independent states in the Caucasus region before becoming Soviet Republics in 1920. The Ottoman Empire transformed into modern Turkey through resistance led by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. Greece invaded Anatolia but was defeated at Dumlupınar leading to Turkish control over Istanbul. The Treaty of Lausanne formally ended hostilities and created the Turkish Republic. In the British Dominions, national identities took hold following battles like Gallipoli and Vimy Ridge. Australia and New Zealand celebrated Anzac Day commemorating their defining moment. Canada emerged with greater international respect after fighting together as a single corps. Ireland saw the outbreak of war for independence in 1919 resulting in the Irish Free State. China requested restoration of Jiaozhou Bay but received rejection from Western Allies. Japan seized German territories in Shandong Province and Pacific islands including the Carolines and Marianas. The May Fourth Movement in China became the birth of Chinese nationalism.

• 4. Revolutionary Waves And Political Upheaval

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  A far-left communist revolutionary wave occurred across Europe between 1917 and 1920. Germany experienced socialist revolution leading to the abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II. Communist political systems briefly existed mainly in urban areas before the Weimar Republic formed. Austria-Hungary lost faith in its allies causing declarations of independence in south-central Europe. Nationalist groups attempted to fill voids left by collapsing central governments. Food shortages and demoralization plagued populations facing massive losses during the war. Various parties ranging from nationalists to communists tried setting up new governments. Czechoslovakia remained an exception among eastern European states that reverted to authoritarian rule. Millions of Germans found themselves living outside Hungary in newly created countries like Czechoslovakia and Romania. Antisemitism grew widespread as modern governments defined national character at expense of minorities. Italy faced economic crisis and high unemployment during the Biennio Rosso period. Workers councils formed in Turin and Milan under anarcho-syndicalist leadership. Factory occupations took place alongside peasant strikes and rural unrest. Benito Mussolini created the Fasci di Combattimento or Combat League on the 15th of April 1919. His group attacked offices of Avanti! newspaper marking their debut in political violence. The November 1919 elections saw heavy defeat for early Fascists with rapid membership loss. Mussolini transformed the movement into the Partito Nazionale Fascista in 1921. Pro-Fascist army officers began taking arms to counter-revolutionary attacks on socialists. Support for Fascists grew significantly starting in 1921. Gabriele D'Annunzio led disaffected veterans to form Free State of Fiume in September 1919. Black-shirted paramilitaries adopted by Mussolini later became standard uniform for Italian Fascism.

• 5. Economic Disruption And Hyperinflation

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  Hyperinflation plagued Germany between late 1921 and 1923 causing severe economic disruption. The value of Papiermarks reduced to one trillionth of its earlier Goldmark worth. Printing paper currency maintained tax rates lower than Allied countries while funding high state expenditure. German officials claimed this was needed to buy foreign currency for reparations payments. Large cash reparation payments only resumed in 1924 after default declared in December 1922. French and Belgian troops occupied the Ruhr until 1925 forcing payment attempts. Inflation more than doubled between 1914 and its peak in 1920 across Britain. The Pound Sterling consumer expenditure fell by 61% during that same period. War reparations in free German coal depressed local industry precipitating the 1926 general strike. British private investments abroad raised £550 million though new investment took place totaling £250 million. Net financial loss reached approximately £300 million less than two years investment compared pre-war average. Material loss remained slight with most merchant navy sunk replaced immediately after war ended. China's Republic sent thousands of laborers to France but received rejection at Paris Peace Conference. American commercial interests financed Europe rebuilding efforts until onset of Great Depression. American opinion on providing aid split between citizens suffering Central Powers versus universal humanitarian ideals. The Crash of 1929 led to strengthening isolationism affecting League of Nations engagement. Japan gained permanent seat on Council of League of Nations despite refusal of racial equality clause. Shandong reverted to Chinese control in 1922 after mediation by United States during Washington Naval Conference.

• 6. Social Trauma And The Lost Generation

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  The optimism of 1900 vanished completely leaving survivors known as the Lost Generation. So many British men of marriageable age died or were injured that only 10 percent would marry according to one girls school warning. The 1921 United Kingdom census found 19,803,022 women and 18,082,220 men creating a surplus of 1.72 million. Newspapers called this difference the Surplus Two Million problem. In 1921 there were 1,209 single women aged 25 to 29 for every 1,000 men. By 1931 half remained single while 35 percent did not marry despite ability to bear children. Stanley Baldwin recognized new strategic reality facing Britain in disarmament speech as early as 1923. Poison gas and aerial bombing introduced terrifying threats to civilian populations previously safe from invasion. The bomber will always get through became a grim statement expressing exaggerated fear of future war deaths. More men died in battle than from disease marking first international conflict with such casualty patterns. Pacifism grew increasingly popular among those revolted by nationalism causing so much suffering. Others felt military strength needed protection against chaotic world ignoring hypothetical notions of civilization. Nihilism gained popularity believing war heralded end of known world including collapse of capitalism. Communist movements drew strength from theory enjoying unprecedented levels of popularity worldwide. Artists like Otto Dix and George Grosz represented experiences in blunt paintings and sculpture. Erich Maria Remarque wrote grim novels detailing personal experiences causing great controversy highlighting conflicting interpretations. German nationalists including Nazis fed on general view that treaty was unfair. Many Germans never accepted treaty legitimacy lending political support to Adolf Hitler. Mein Kampf quotes described Versailles as shame and disgrace representing unprecedented plundering of people.