Who was Lokakshema and when did he arrive in Luoyang?
Lokakshema arrived in the Han capital of Luoyang during the second century, specifically toward the end of Emperor Huan's reign which lasted from 147 to 168. He belonged to the Yuezhi people who covered vast territories including modern Iran, Afghanistan, and Pakistan.
What texts did Lokakshema translate between 178 and 189 CE?
Between 178 and 189 CE Lokakshema translated numerous Mahayana Buddhist texts into Chinese including the Aśtasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra known as T224 and the Scripture on the Tusita Heaven. The editors of the Taisho Tripitaka attribute twelve specific texts to him such as the Akshohhya-vyūha and the Kaśyapaparivrata.
How did Lokakshema style his translations compared to other monks?
Lokakshema featured extensive transliteration of Indic terms rather than immediate conversion and retained Indian stylistic features such as long sentences within the Chinese text. He typically rendered Indic verse as Chinese prose without attempting to capture the original meter unlike later translators.
Which works attributed to Lokakshema have disappeared from history?
Several translations attributed to Lokakshema have disappeared from history entirely including the Shoulengyan jing which represents a version of the Suramgama-samādhi-sutra. Other vanished titles include the Guangming sanmei jing known as the Sutra on the Samadhi of Luminosity and the Hu banniehuan jing referred to as The Hu Parinirvānā Sutra.
Why do scholars debate the authenticity of Lokakshema's texts?
Scholars debate the authenticity because some texts show signs of extensive editing by unknown hands after Lokakshema's time and certain verses were added or altered by later scribes. Paul Harrison expresses reservations concerning the authenticity of the Akshohhya-vyūha while Jan Nattier notes that T418 is a product of later revision.