What was the Mukden incident that started the Japanese invasion of Manchuria?
The Mukden incident on the 18th of September 1931 was a false flag event staged by Kwantung Army officers, specifically planned by Colonel Seishirō Itagaki and Lieutenant Colonel Kanji Ishiwara. A bomb was placed near the tracks of the South Manchuria Railway at Mukden, likely by Captain Imada Shintaro of the Army Special Service Agency, and detonated to provide a pretext for invasion. The explosion was deliberately placed far enough from the tracks to do no real damage.
What was the Lytton Commission and what did it conclude about the Japanese invasion of Manchuria?
The Lytton Commission was a League of Nations investigative body headed by British politician Victor Bulwer-Lytton, sent to evaluate the Manchurian situation. It delivered its findings in October 1932, recommending that the puppet state of Manchukuo not be recognized and that Manchuria be returned to Chinese sovereignty. Japan responded by withdrawing from the League of Nations entirely.
Who was General Ma Zhanshan and why is he significant in the Manchurian invasion?
General Ma Zhanshan was the acting governor of Heilongjiang province and a Muslim commander who defied the Kuomintang government's ban on resisting the Japanese. He became a national hero in China for his stand at Nenjiang Bridge in November 1931. On the 15th of November 1931, despite losing more than 400 men killed and 300 wounded since the 5th of November, he refused a Japanese ultimatum to surrender Qiqihar.
When did the Japanese invasion of Manchuria end and how was it resolved?
Official Chinese military resistance in Manchuria ended on the 27th of February 1932, when General Ding Chao offered to cease hostilities. The Japanese established the puppet state of Manchukuo in February 1932, which lasted until mid-August 1945. The occupation ended when the Soviet Union and Mongolia launched the Manchurian Strategic Offensive Operation near the end of the Second World War.
How did the Japanese civilian government respond to the Kwantung Army's unauthorized invasion of Manchuria?
The Japanese civilian government was thrown into disarray by the army's insubordination, which violated orders from Imperial General Headquarters to localize the incident. Because Army and Navy ministers were constitutionally necessary for any cabinet to function, the civilian government felt powerless to oppose the military. It ultimately sent three additional infantry divisions into Manchuria, beginning with the 14th Mixed Brigade of the IJA 7th Division.
What effect did the Japanese invasion of Manchuria have on the League of Nations?
The Manchurian Crisis had a significant negative effect on the moral authority and influence of the League of Nations. Japan's withdrawal following the Lytton Commission's report demonstrated that the League was powerless against a determined major power. Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini both took note, and both subsequently pursued their own acts of aggression: Italy against Abyssinia in 1935-37 and Germany against Czechoslovakia in 1938-39 and Poland in 1939.