Short answers, pulled from the story.
The word Arctic derives from the ancient Greek term arktikos, meaning near the bear, which links the frozen north to the celestial constellations Ursa Major and Ursa Minor. This etymological root reveals how early observers mapped the heavens to the earth using the Great Bear and Little Bear to define the northernmost reaches of the planet.
The earliest inhabitants of North America's central and eastern Arctic are referred to as the Arctic small tool tradition, which existed from approximately 4500 to 800 BCE. This tradition consisted of several Paleo-Eskimo cultures, including the Independence cultures and Pre-Dorset cultures.
On the 2nd of August 2007, two Russian bathyscaphes, MIR-1 and MIR-2, for the first time in history descended to the Arctic seabed beneath the North Pole and placed there a Russian flag made of rust-proof titanium alloy. This flag-placing during Arktika 2007 generated commentary on and concern for a race for control of the Arctic's vast hydrocarbon resources.
The Arctic near-surface temperature is increasing at a rate that is 2 to 3 times faster than the global average, which is referred to as Arctic amplification. This amplified response makes the Arctic a leading indicator of global warming and leads to the release of ancient carbon from thawing permafrost.
The surrounding six Arctic states that border the Arctic Ocean are Canada, the Kingdom of Denmark with Greenland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, and the United States. These nations are limited to a 200 nautical mile exclusive economic zone off their coasts and have launched projects to establish claims to extended continental shelves.