Arctic: the story on HearLore

Arctic

The word Arctic derives from the ancient Greek term arktikos, meaning near the bear, a linguistic link that ties the frozen north to the celestial constellations Ursa Major and Ursa Minor. This etymological root reveals how early observers mapped the heavens to the earth, using the Great Bear and Little Bear to define the northernmost reaches of the planet. The region surrounding the North Pole is not merely a geographic coordinate but a cultural and astronomical anchor that has guided explorers and scholars for millennia. The Arctic Circle, situated at approximately 66 degrees 34 minutes north, marks the southern boundary where the midnight sun and polar night occur, creating a unique cycle of light and darkness that defines life in the region. This boundary is not static; it shifts slightly over time due to the precession of the equinoxes, yet it remains the primary demarcation for the Arctic as defined by geography and climate. The area encompasses parts of northern Norway, Sweden, Finland, Russia, the United States, Canada, the Danish Realm, and northern Iceland, along with the Arctic Ocean and its adjacent seas. Land within this region features seasonally varying snow and ice cover, with predominantly treeless permafrost under the tundra. Arctic seas contain seasonal sea ice in many places, creating a dynamic environment that changes with the seasons and the climate. The Arctic is a unique area among Earth's ecosystems, supporting a diverse range of life from zooplankton and phytoplankton to fish, marine mammals, birds, land animals, plants, and human societies. The region is bordered by the subarctic, which serves as a transition zone between the harsh Arctic and the more temperate climates to the south. The Arctic's definition varies depending on the perspective of the observer, with ecologists often defining it as the region where the average temperature for the warmest month, July, is below 10 degrees Celsius. This ecological definition aligns closely with the northernmost tree line, which roughly follows the isotherm at the boundary of the region. The Arctic's unique climate and geography have shaped the lives of its inhabitants and the ecosystems that thrive within it, making it a region of profound significance and complexity.

Frozen Land And Living Things

Arctic life is characterized by adaptation to short growing seasons with long periods of sunlight and cold, dark, snow-covered winter conditions. Plants such as dwarf shrubs, graminoids, herbs, lichens, and mosses grow relatively close to the ground, forming tundra. An example of a dwarf shrub is the bearberry, which thrives in the harsh conditions of the Arctic. As one moves northward, the amount of warmth available for plant growth decreases considerably, and in the northernmost areas, plants are at their metabolic limits. Small differences in the total amount of summer warmth make large differences in the amount of energy available for maintenance, growth, and reproduction. Colder summer temperatures cause the size, abundance, productivity, and variety of plants to decrease. Trees cannot grow in the Arctic, but in its warmest parts, shrubs are common and can reach 2 meters in height. Sedges, mosses, and lichens can form thick layers, creating a dense carpet of vegetation that supports a wide range of animal life. Herbivores on the tundra include the Arctic hare, lemming, muskox, and reindeer, which are preyed on by the snowy owl, Arctic fox, grizzly bear, and Arctic wolf. The polar bear is also a predator, though it prefers to hunt for marine life from the ice. There are also many birds and marine species endemic to the colder regions. Other terrestrial animals include wolverines, moose, Dall sheep, ermines, and Arctic ground squirrels. Marine mammals include seals, walruses, and several species of cetacean, such as baleen whales, narwhals, orcas, and belugas. The Arctic's flora and fauna have evolved to survive in one of the most extreme environments on Earth, adapting to the long winters and short summers that define the region. The Arctic's unique ecosystem supports a diverse range of life, from the smallest lichens to the largest whales, creating a complex web of interactions that sustains the region's biodiversity.

What is the origin of the word Arctic?

The word Arctic derives from the ancient Greek term arktikos, meaning near the bear, which links the frozen north to the celestial constellations Ursa Major and Ursa Minor. This etymological root reveals how early observers mapped the heavens to the earth using the Great Bear and Little Bear to define the northernmost reaches of the planet.

When did the earliest inhabitants of the Arctic exist?

What happened on the 2nd of August 2007 in the Arctic?

How fast is the Arctic warming compared to the global average?

The Arctic near-surface temperature is increasing at a rate that is 2 to 3 times faster than the global average, which is referred to as Arctic amplification. This amplified response makes the Arctic a leading indicator of global warming and leads to the release of ancient carbon from thawing permafrost.

Which countries are the six Arctic states that border the Arctic Ocean?

The surrounding six Arctic states that border the Arctic Ocean are Canada, the Kingdom of Denmark with Greenland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, and the United States. These nations are limited to a 200 nautical mile exclusive economic zone off their coasts and have launched projects to establish claims to extended continental shelves.

Ancient Peoples And Modern Nations

The earliest inhabitants of North America's central and eastern Arctic are referred to as the Arctic small tool tradition, which existed from approximately 4500 to 800 BCE. This tradition consisted of several Paleo-Eskimo cultures, including the Independence cultures and Pre-Dorset cultures. The Dorset culture, known in Inuktitut as Tuniit or Tunit, refers to the next inhabitants of central and eastern Arctic, evolving because of technological and economic changes during 1050 to 550 BCE. With the exception of the Quebec and Labrador peninsula, the Dorset culture vanished around 1500 CE. Supported by genetic testing, evidence shows that descendants of the Dorset culture, known as the Sadlermiut, survived in Aivilik, Southampton, and Coats Islands until the beginning of the 20th century. The Dorset and Thule culture transition dates around the ninth to 10th centuries CE, and scientists theorize that there may have been cross-contact between the two cultures with the sharing of technology, such as fashioning harpoon heads, or the Thule may have found Dorset remnants and adapted their ways with the predecessor culture. The evidence suggests that Inuit descend from the Birnirk of Siberia, through the Thule culture expanded into northern Canada and Greenland, where they genetically and culturally completely replaced the Indigenous Dorset people sometime after 1300 CE. The question of why the Dorset disappeared so completely has led some to suggest that Thule invaders wiped out the Dorset people in an example of prehistoric genocide. By 1300 CE, the Inuit, present-day Arctic inhabitants and descendants of Thule culture, had settled in west Greenland and moved into east Greenland over the following century. Inughuit, Kalaallit, and Tunumiit are modern Greenlandic Inuit groups descended from Thule. Over time, the Inuit have migrated throughout the Arctic regions of Eastern Russia, the United States, Canada, and Greenland. Other Circumpolar North indigenous peoples include the Chukchi, Evenks, Iñupiat, Khanty, Koryaks, Nenets, Sámi, Yukaghir, Gwich'in, and Yupik. These indigenous groups have adapted to the cold and extreme conditions of the Arctic, developing unique cultures and technologies to survive in the harsh environment. The Arctic's indigenous populations have a rich history and a deep connection to the land, which has been shaped by thousands of years of adaptation and survival.

The Race For Resources

The Arctic contains some of the last and most extensive continuous wilderness areas in the world, and its significance in preserving biodiversity and genotypes is considerable. The region holds 1/5 of the Earth's water supply and contains copious natural resources, including oil, gas, minerals, freshwater, fish, and, if the subarctic is included, forest. Modern technology and the economic opening up of Russia have given significant new opportunities for resource extraction, but the increasing presence of humans fragments vital habitats. The Arctic is particularly susceptible to the abrasion of groundcover and to the disturbance of the rare breeding grounds of the animals that are characteristic of the region. The Arctic is a site of strategic competition between world powers, particularly Russia and NATO. Russia's Northern Fleet, stationed in the Kola Peninsula, is a major element of its nuclear deterrence strategy. Russia also conducts nuclear weapons tests on Novaya Zemlya and has sought to promote the use of the Northern Sea Route in international maritime trade. The Trump administration has focused US attention on the Arctic, with Trump threatening to invade Greenland in 2025 and 2026, seeing direct control over it as essential to US strategic interests. In response to Trump, the United States's NATO allies have sought to divert US attention toward Russian Arctic activities and bolster their own readiness. Two strategically important straits in the Arctic are the GIUK Gap and the Bear Gap, between Svalbard and Norway. The Arctic's strategic importance has led to a race for control of the region's vast hydrocarbon resources, with nations vying for sovereignty and economic advantage. The Arctic's natural resources have become a focal point of international competition, with nations seeking to exploit the region's oil, gas, and mineral deposits. The Arctic's strategic importance has also led to increased military activity in the region, with nations seeking to secure their interests and protect their sovereignty. The Arctic's resources have become a source of tension and conflict, with nations seeking to exploit the region's potential for economic gain.

The Ice That Melts

The Arctic region is especially vulnerable to the effects of any climate change, as has become apparent with the reduction of sea ice in recent years. The Arctic near-surface temperature is increasing at a rate that is 2 to 3 times faster than the global average, which is referred to as Arctic amplification. Potential methane release from the region, especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates, is also a concern. Because of the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming, it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming. The melting of Greenland's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification. The current Arctic warming is leading to ancient carbon being released from thawing permafrost, leading to methane and carbon dioxide production by micro-organisms. Release of methane and carbon dioxide stored in permafrost could cause abrupt and severe global warming, as they are potent greenhouse gases. Climate change is also predicted to have a large impact on tundra vegetation, causing an increase of shrubs and having a negative impact on bryophytes and lichens. The Arctic's climate change rates are amongst the highest in the world, and the near climate future of the region will be extremely different under all scenarios of warming. The melting of the ice is making the Northwest Passage, shipping routes through the northernmost latitudes, more navigable, raising the possibility that the Arctic region will become a prime trade route. One harbinger of the opening navigability of the Arctic took place in the summer of 2016 when the Crystal Serenity successfully navigated the Northwest Passage, a first for a large cruise ship. In addition, it is believed that the Arctic seabed may contain substantial oil fields which may become accessible if the ice covering them melts. These factors have led to recent international debates as to which nations can claim sovereignty or ownership over the waters of the Arctic. The Arctic's climate change has become a global concern, with nations seeking to address the region's unique vulnerabilities and the potential impacts of warming on the planet.

Flags On The Seabed

On the 2nd of August 2007, two Russian bathyscaphes, MIR-1 and MIR-2, for the first time in history descended to the Arctic seabed beneath the North Pole and placed there a Russian flag made of rust-proof titanium alloy. The flag-placing, during Arktika 2007, generated commentary on and concern for a race for control of the Arctic's vast hydrocarbon resources. While there are several ongoing territorial claims in the Arctic, no country owns the geographic North Pole or the region of the Arctic Ocean surrounding it. The surrounding six Arctic states that border the Arctic Ocean, Canada, the Kingdom of Denmark with Greenland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, and the United States, are limited to a 200 nautical mile exclusive economic zone off their coasts. Two Arctic states, Finland and Sweden, do not have direct access to the Arctic Ocean. Upon ratification of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, a country has ten years to make claims to an extended continental shelf beyond its 200 nautical mile zone. Due to this, Norway, which ratified the convention in 1996, Russia, ratified in 1997, Canada, ratified in 2003, and the Kingdom of Denmark, ratified in 2004, launched projects to establish claims that certain sectors of the Arctic seabed should belong to their territories. As of 2012, the Kingdom of Denmark is claiming the continental shelf based on the Lomonosov Ridge between Greenland and over the North Pole to the northern limit of the exclusive economic zone of Russia. The Russian Federation is also claiming a large swath of seabed along the Lomonosov Ridge but, unlike Denmark, confined its claim to its side of the Arctic region. In August 2015, Russia made a supplementary submission for the expansion of the external borders of its continental shelf in the Arctic Ocean, asserting that the eastern part of the Lomonosov Ridge and the Mendeleyev Ridge is an extension of the Eurasian continent. In August 2016, the UN Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf began to consider Russia's submission. Canada claims the Northwest Passage as part of its internal waters belonging to Canada, while the United States and most maritime nations regard it as an international strait, which means that foreign vessels have right of transit passage. The Arctic's territorial claims have become a source of international tension, with nations seeking to secure their interests and protect their sovereignty. The Arctic's strategic importance has led to increased military activity in the region, with nations seeking to secure their interests and protect their sovereignty. The Arctic's resources have become a source of tension and conflict, with nations seeking to exploit the region's potential for economic gain.