Venetian glass
Glass production in Venice began as early as 450 when glassmakers from Aquileia fled to the islands to escape barbarian invaders. The earliest archaeological evidence of a glass factory in the area comes from the Venetian lagoon island of Torcello and dates from the seventh or eighth century. These original Venetian glassmakers were joined by glassmakers from Byzantium and from the Middle East which enriched their glassmaking knowledge. Glass was made in the Middle East long before it was made in Europe though Ancient Roman glass could be extremely sophisticated. Early products included beads, glass for mosaics, jewelry, small mirrors, and window glass. By the beginning of the 11th century Venice dominated trade between Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East. Successful trade bred a wealthy merchant class that became patrons of Venice's famous art and architecture.
A law dated the 8th of November 1291 confined most of Venice's glassmaking industry to the island of Murano. This decree moved all furnaces to one location because they often caught fire and posed a threat to the wooden structures of the city. Moving the industry removed the possibility of a major fire disaster for the rest of Venice. It also kept the technology of glassmaking and the glassmakers themselves confined to Murano. Glassmakers were not allowed to leave the island without permission from the government. Leaving without permission or revealing trade secrets was punishable by death. If a glassworker left the city without permission his family would be imprisoned. If he still did not return an assassin would be sent to kill him. The Council of Ten monitored imports and exports on this single island cluster located less than two miles north of the Venetian mainland.
Cristallo is a soda glass created during the 15th century by Murano's Angelo Barovier. The oldest reference to cristallo is dated the 24th of May 1453. At the time it was considered Europe's clearest glass and became one of the main reasons Murano became the most important glass center. Manganese dioxide served as a key ingredient in the secret formula used to make cristallo. An easy modification produced a frosted or crackle version that remained popular. Lattimo began being made in Murano during the 15th century and Angelo Barovier is credited with its re-discovery and development. This opaque white glass was meant to resemble enameled porcelain often decorated with enamel showing sacred scenes or views of Venice. Calcedonio is a marbled glass that looked like the semiprecious stone chalcedony created during the 1400s by Barovier who died in 1460.
The 16th century was the golden age for Venatlian glassmaking in Murano with at least 28 glassmaking furnaces operating there in 1581. Major trading partners included the Spanish Indies Italy Spain Ottoman Turkey and the German-speaking states. Collectors of Murano glass included Henry VIII of England Pope Clement VII King Ferdinand of Hungary Francis I of France and Philip II of Spain. In 1612 the Florentine priest Antonio Neri published L'Arte Vetraria which revealed all the secrets of Venetian glass production to the outside world. By the later 16th century efforts to hold on to its virtual monopoly were beginning to fail as other countries tempted skilled workers away. The glass made in this movement is called façon de Venise though quality is typically rather lower than the Venetian originals. Eventually the dominance of cristallo came to an end when English glass merchant George Ravenscroft created lead crystal in 1673.
Napoleon conquered Venice during May 1797 and the Venetian Republic came to an end causing hard times for glassmaking in Murano. Some of the Murano methods became lost under French and Austrian control where tariffs and taxes made glassmaking unprofitable. Surviving glassmakers were reduced to making mostly beads until Napoleon closed the Venetian glass factories in 1807. It was not until Venice became part of Italy in 1866 that Murano glassmaking could experience a revival. Local leaders such as the mayor of Murano Antonio Colleoni and Abbot Vincenzo Zanetti began reinventing earlier techniques. Antonio Salviati a Venetian lawyer who gave up his profession in 1859 devoted his time to glassmaking and played an important role in the revival. The oldest glass factory Antica Vetreria Fratelli Toso was founded in 1854 and remains well known today.
Overall the industry has been shrinking as demand has waned while public tastes have changed. Imitation works from Asia and Eastern Europe take an estimated 40 to 45 percent of the market for Murano glass. To fight the imitation problem a group created a trademark in 1994 that certifies products made on Murano. By 2012 about 50 companies were using the Artistic Glass Murano trademark of origin. Foreign imitations and difficulty attracting young workers caused the number of professional glassmakers in Murano to decrease from about 6,000 in 1990 to fewer than 1,000 by 2012. Glassmakers must work with a product heated to extremely high temperatures making it a difficult and uncomfortable profession. Unlike 500 years ago children of glassmakers do not enjoy any special privileges or extra wealth today.
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Common questions
When did glass production begin in Venice?
Glass production in Venice began as early as 450 when glassmakers from Aquileia fled to the islands to escape barbarian invaders. The earliest archaeological evidence of a glass factory in the area comes from the Venetian lagoon island of Torcello and dates from the seventh or eighth century.
Why was the Venetian glassmaking industry moved to Murano on the 8th of November 1291?
A law dated the 8th of November 1291 confined most of Venice's glassmaking industry to the island of Murano because furnaces often caught fire and posed a threat to the wooden structures of the city. This decree removed the possibility of a major fire disaster for the rest of Venice while keeping the technology and glassmakers themselves confined to Murano.
Who created Cristallo during the 15th century and what were its key ingredients?
Cristallo is a soda glass created during the 15th century by Murano's Angelo Barovier. Manganese dioxide served as a key ingredient in the secret formula used to make cristallo which became Europe's clearest glass at the time.
What happened to Venetian glassmaking after Napoleon conquered Venice in May 1797?
Napoleon conquered Venice during May 1797 and the Venetian Republic came to an end causing hard times for glassmaking in Murano. Some of the Murano methods became lost under French and Austrian control where tariffs and taxes made glassmaking unprofitable until Venice became part of Italy in 1866.
How many professional glassmakers worked in Murano between 1990 and 2012?
Foreign imitations and difficulty attracting young workers caused the number of professional glassmakers in Murano to decrease from about 6,000 in 1990 to fewer than 1,000 by 2012. By 2012 about 50 companies were using the Artistic Glass Murano trademark of origin to certify products made on Murano.