UGM-27 Polaris
In the summer of 1956, a study group gathered at Nobska Point in Woods Hole, Massachusetts for Project NOBSKA. Edward Teller stood before them and promised that a one-megaton warhead could be built within five years. This bold claim shifted the entire direction of naval missile development away from liquid-fuel Jupiter rockets. Admiral Arleigh Burke left the Jupiter program to concentrate on Polaris by December of that year. The Navy needed a solid-propellant missile that was smaller than existing designs yet covered a range up to fifteen hundred miles. Liquid fuel was dangerous to handle and required time-consuming launch preparations. Solid fuels made logistics simpler and were safer for submarine deployment. A huge surfaced submarine would carry four Jupiter missiles horizontally but this design proved unsuitable for underwater launches. By mid-July 1956, the Secretary of Defense's Scientific Advisory Committee recommended instigating a solid-propellant missile program. The first Polaris test occurred on the 24th of September 1958, when an AX-1 model failed its pitch maneuver. Five of seventeen total flights met all objectives by the end of the initial testing phase.
The first submerged firing took place on the 20th of July 1960, using a wet launch method where the missile traveled through water without a casing. Developers faced constant challenges because waves and swells rocked the submarine hull during operation. An inertial guidance system called SINS provided continuous dead reckoning updates between position fixes via Transit satellite data. William Guier and George Weiffenbach began developing the Transit system at Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory in 1958. A computer small enough to fit through a submarine hatch was developed in 1958 known as the AN/UYK-1. This unit interpreted satellite data and sent guidance information to the Polaris missile. Ultra miniaturized electronics were required because there was very little room inside each missile tube. In 1962, the price for each Minuteman chip stood at fifty dollars before dropping to two dollars by 1968. The Ship's Inertial Navigation System did not account for changing gravitational fields or the ever-altering position of Earth. Operators needed accurate navigational readouts to direct missiles effectively against targets. By 1965 microchips similar to Texas Instruments units made for Minuteman II were being purchased by the Navy.
The first operational version designated Polaris A-1 entered service in late 1961 with a range of nine hundred nautical miles. It carried a single W-47-Y1 nuclear warhead weighing six hundred kilotons. The missile had an inertial guidance system providing a circular error probable of three thousand feet. Thirteen submarines received the A-2 model which served until June 1974. Ongoing problems with mechanical arming equipment led to large numbers of missiles being recalled for modifications. The final model known as Polaris A-3 extended the range to eighteen hundred nautical miles. This variant housed three Mk 2 re-entry vehicles spread out in a shotgun-like pattern above a single target. The first submarine outfitted with MRV A-3s was the USS George Washington in 1964. The US Navy began replacing Polaris with Poseidon in 1972 across thirty-one of forty-one original SSBNs. Ten submarines retained Polaris A-3 until 1980 because their missile tubes were not large enough to accommodate Poseidon. These remaining vessels were disarmed and redesignated as attack submarines during sea trials beginning in 1980.
The complexity of the Polaris program necessitated the creation of new project management techniques including PERT methodology. Program Evaluation and Review Technique replaced simpler Gantt chart methods used previously. Secretary Wilson moved the project along more quickly after Sputnik launched on the 4th of October 1957. Public and government opinions pressured officials to accelerate development timelines significantly. The prime contractor for all three versions of Polaris was Lockheed Missiles and Space Company. Testing occurred at Cape Canaveral from launch pads designated AX-1 through AX-6 between September 1958 and April 1959. The fourth test on the 30th of December 1958 failed due to fuel overheating in the boattail section. Extra shielding and insulation had to be added to wiring and other components following that failure. By January 1959, four tests had been conducted with mixed results regarding trajectory accuracy. The final AX flight conducted a year after program start showed seventeen total flights with five meeting objectives.
The Nassau Agreement signed on the 6th of April 1963 allowed Britain to receive Polaris missiles and fire-control systems from the United States. Harold Macmillan met John F. Kennedy to finalize terms while Italy received Jupiter missile upgrades during reconstruction programs between 1957 and 1961. Three factors influenced Italy's decision to switch from Jupiter to Polaris including presidential views and new weapon system understanding. The Joint Congressional Committee report accentuated these changes before the Cuban Missile Crisis ended plans for surface-launched NATO Multilateral Nuclear Force. Italy developed a domestic version called Alfa which was cancelled in 1975 after ratifying the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. Two Italian Navy cruisers commissioned in 1963 were fitted for but not with two Polaris launchers per ship. Four launchers were built but never installed and stored at La Spezia naval facility. The USS George Washington launched first operational Polaris A-1s in 1960 carrying sixteen missiles each. Forty more SSBNs were launched between 1960 and 1966 to expand the fleet capacity globally.
Britain's submarines featured Polaris A3TK missiles modified from US models used between 1968 and 1972. The Chevaline program added multiple decoys chaff and defensive countermeasures to penetrate Soviet anti-ballistic missile screens. Its existence remained secret until 1980 partly due to cost overruns that almost quadrupled original estimates approved in January 1975. Solly Zuckerman believed Britain no longer needed new nuclear designs while Denis Healey supported modifications to existing systems. The system became operational on HMS Repulse in mid-1982 and equipped all British SSBNs by mid-1987. Chevaline was withdrawn from service in 1996 after decades of use. The outgoing Prime Minister James Callaghan made government papers available to Margaret Thatcher before she acquired Trident C4 missiles. All Royal Navy SSBNs have been based at Faslane only a few miles from Holy Loch. One submarine always underwent refit while others maintained deterrent patrols with limited rearming abilities.
The Polaris missile remained in Royal Navy service long after being completely retired and scrapped by the US Navy in 1980 or 1981. Many spare parts and repair facilities located in the United States ceased availability as Lockheed moved to Poseidon then Trident programs. STARS program began in 1985 using surplus Polaris boosters to launch targets for Strategic Defense Initiative experiments. Sandia National Laboratories developed two configurations known as STARS I and STARS II between 1985 and 1994. BMDO provided about one hundred ninety-two point one million dollars for this effort during development phase. First STARS I flight occurred in February 1993 followed by second flight in August 1993. Third flight launched in July 1994 considered successful by BMDO standards. From 2004 onwards STARS served as standard booster for Ground-Based Interceptor trials. The D5 Life Extension Program aims to extend submarine life until year 2040 replacing obsolete components using commercial off-the-shelf hardware.
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Common questions
When did the Polaris missile program begin and what was its initial goal?
The Polaris missile program began in the summer of 1956 when a study group gathered at Nobska Point for Project NOBSKA. Edward Teller promised that a one-megaton warhead could be built within five years to shift naval missile development away from liquid-fuel Jupiter rockets.
What were the technical specifications of the first operational Polaris A-1 model?
The first operational version designated Polaris A-1 entered service in late 1961 with a range of nine hundred nautical miles. It carried a single W-47-Y1 nuclear warhead weighing six hundred kilotons and had an inertial guidance system providing a circular error probable of three thousand feet.
How many submarines received the Polaris A-2 model and until when did they serve?
Thirteen submarines received the A-2 model which served until June 1974. Ongoing problems with mechanical arming equipment led to large numbers of missiles being recalled for modifications before retirement.
Which country received Polaris missiles under the Nassau Agreement signed on the 6th of April 1963?
Britain received Polaris missiles and fire-control systems from the United States under the Nassau Agreement signed on the 6th of April 1963. Harold Macmillan met John F. Kennedy to finalize terms while Italy received Jupiter missile upgrades during reconstruction programs between 1957 and 1961.
What was the Chevaline program and when did it become operational in British service?
The Chevaline program added multiple decoys chaff and defensive countermeasures to penetrate Soviet anti-ballistic missile screens. The system became operational on HMS Repulse in mid-1982 and equipped all British SSBNs by mid-1987 before being withdrawn from service in 1996.