Titus Andronicus
Philip Henslowe's diary entry from the 24th of January 1594 records a performance of Titus Andronicus by Sussex's Men at The Rose theatre. Henslowe marked the play as new, which most critics interpret to mean it was recently written or newly licensed for that season. Subsequent performances occurred on the 29th of January and the 6th of February of that same year. The earliest known printed version appeared later in 1594 under the title The Most Lamentable Romaine Tragedie of Titus Andronicus. This quarto edition lists three different acting companies: Derby's Men, Pembroke's Men, and Sussex's Men. Such multiple company listings were highly unusual for Elizabethan plays, which typically named only one troupe. Eugene Waith suggests this indicates the play moved between companies after the London theatres closed due to plague in June 1592. Jonathan Bate argues instead that the listing order is random and offers no dating clues. Ben Jonson wrote in 1614 that the play had been standing still for twenty-five to thirty years, implying composition dates between 1584 and 1589. Gary Taylor used stylometry to place Act 3 Scene 2 alongside Romeo and Juliet in late 1593 while the rest of the play fits mid-1592. Thomas Middleton likely added the fly-killing scene after Shakespeare died in 1616.
Saturninus and Bassianus quarrel over succession immediately after the Roman emperor dies. Marcus Andronicus announces the people have chosen his brother Titus as their new ruler. Titus returns from a ten-year campaign against the Goths carrying prisoners including Tamora Queen of the Goths and her three sons Alarbus Chiron and Demetrius. He also brings Aaron the Moor who serves as Tamora's secret lover. Despite Tamora's pleas Titus sacrifices her eldest son Alarbus to avenge the deaths of twenty-one of his own sons during the war. Distraught Tamora vows revenge on Titus and his family. Saturninus marries Tamora despite her being a prisoner and enemy. Aaron persuades Demetrius and Chiron to kill Bassianus so they may rape Lavinia. They throw Bassianus's body into a pit and drag Lavinia deep into the forest before violently raping her. To keep her silent they cut out her tongue and cut off her hands. Aaron writes a forged letter framing Martius and Quintus for Bassianus's murder. Saturninus sentences them to death while Titus has his left hand cut off by Aaron in exchange for saving his sons. A messenger returns with Martius and Quintus's severed heads along with Titus's own hand. Lucius flees Rome to raise an army among the Goths. Lavinia writes the names of her attackers in the dirt using a stick held between her mouth and arms. Aaron kills the nurse to hide his mixed-race baby and flees to raise his son among the Goths. Lucius captures Aaron and threatens to hang the infant. Aaron reveals the entire plot to save his child. Titus cuts the throats of Chiron and Demetrius draining their blood into a basin held by Lavinia. He grinds their bones into powder and bakes their heads into pies served to Tamora. Titus kills Lavinia then dies when Saturninus kills him. Lucius avenges his father by killing Saturninus and is proclaimed Emperor.
Ovid's Metamorphoses provides the primary source for the rape and mutilation of Lavinia as well as Titus's subsequent revenge. Book six tells the story of Philomela whose sister Procne marries Tereus of Thrace. Tereus rapes Philomela and cuts out her tongue to prevent disclosure. Philomela weaves a tapestry naming Tereus as her assailant which she sends to Procne. The sisters kill Itys cook his body in a pie and serve it to Tereus during a meal. Seneca's play Thyestes influenced Titus's revenge motif where Atreus kills Thyestes's sons and serves them baked in a pie at a reconciliatory feast. Livy's Ab urbe condita contains the story of Verginia whose father stabs her to save her from Appius Claudius Crassus who lusts after her. An unnamed popular tale about a Moor's vengeance published in various languages throughout the sixteenth century likely inspired Aaron tricking Titus into cutting off his hand. Shakespeare drew character names from multiple historical and literary sources including Plutarch's Life of Scipio Africanus for Caius Demetrius Marcus Martius Quintus and Sempronius. Lucius may be named after Saint Lucius or Lucius Junius Brutus founder of the Roman Republic. Lavinia takes her name from Virgil's Aeneid while Tamora possibly derives from Queen Tomyris of the ancient Massagetae. Alarbus comes from George Puttenham's The Arte of English Poesie containing the line Wild Africans and the lawless Alarbes.
The earliest known record of Titus Andronicus appears in Philip Henslowe's diary on the 24th of January 1594 marking it as new. John Danter entered A booke intitled a Noble Roman Historye of Tytus Andronicus into the Stationers Register on the 6th of February 1594. The first quarto edition appeared later that year printed by James Roberts for Edward White and Thomas Millington. This Q1 text is considered a good text forming the basis for most modern editions. A second quarto printed by James Roberts in 1600 appears based on a damaged copy of Q1 with missing lines replaced by guesswork. The third quarto published in 1611 under the title The Most Lamentable Tragedie of Titus Andronicus introduces many more errors than its predecessor. The First Folio text of 1623 includes material found in none of the quarto editions primarily Act 3 Scene 2 also called the fly-killing scene. An annotated prompter's copy likely influenced stage directions which differ significantly from all quarto texts. The Peacham drawing now residing at Longleat depicts a performance of Titus but provokes varying interpretations regarding its date and authenticity. Some scholars believe it shows a play other than Titus Andronicus while others associate it with Shakespearean forger John Payne Collier. The Folger Shakespeare Library holds one of two known copies of the second edition donated by William Hog in 1700.
Titus was extremely popular in its day but became perhaps Shakespeare's most maligned play over the course of the seventeenth eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Edward Ravenscroft wrote in 1687 that the original play is the most incorrect and indigested piece in all his works seeming rather a heap of rubbish than a structure. Samuel Johnson questioned the possibility of staging the play in 1765 pointing out that the barbarity of the spectacles can scarcely be conceived tolerable to any audience. August Wilhelm Schlegel claimed in 1811 that the play degenerated into the horrible yet leaves no deep impression behind. T.S. Eliot argued in 1927 that it was one of the stupidest and most uninspired plays ever written where even the best passages would be too highly honoured by Peele's signature. Harold Bloom defended the play in 1998 insisting it is meant to be a parody mocking and exploiting Marlowe. Jacques Berthoud noted in 2001 that until shortly after World War II Titus was taken seriously only by textual scholars while theatrical managers treated it as either needing radical rewriting or as show-biz opportunity for a star actor. Julie Taymor directed an Off-Broadway production in 1994 saying she found it relevant for the modern era because we live in the most violent period in history.
Saturninus opens the play addressing Noble patricians patrons of my right establishing honour as the central moral currency. Bassianus states that dishonour should not approach the imperial seat consecrated to virtue justice continence and nobility. Marcus announces Titus returns laden with honour's spoils flourishing in arms. The family tomb is called a sweet cell of virtue and nobility. When Mutius dies Titus declares his sons never so dishonoured him. Saturninus accuses Titus's sons of being traitorous haughty confederates all to dishonour me. Tamora suggests forgiving Titus but her false appeal to honour begins the bloody cycle of revenge. Aaron describes Tamora saying earthly honour waits upon her wit while virtue stoops and trembles at her frown. Bassianus tells Tamora your swarthy Cimmerian doth make your honour of his body's hue spotted detested and abominable. In Act 3 Scene 1 Titus asks Aaron to cut off his hand believing it will save his sons lives stating Lend me thy hand and I will give thee mine. This creates language where lending one's hand risks dismemberment. Marcus delivers a speech upon finding Lavinia after her rape using beautiful imagery to describe horrific sight. John Dover Wilson saw this as parody mocking contemporaries by writing something so bad. Nicholas Brooke argues it stands as choric commentary establishing significance through emblem of mutilated woman. Eve Myles suggested Marcus tries to bandage wounds with language creating calming effect. Anthony Brian Taylor argued simply that Marcus is babbling an old man's reverie shaken by horrible spectacle. Jonathan Bate sees it as attempting to bring back what has been lost figuratively returning Lavinia's beauty through language.
Continue Browsing
Common questions
When was Titus Andronicus first performed by Sussex's Men at The Rose theatre?
Philip Henslowe's diary entry from the 24th of January 1594 records a performance of Titus Andronicus by Sussex's Men at The Rose theatre. Subsequent performances occurred on the 29th of January and the 6th of February of that same year.
Who wrote the fly-killing scene in Titus Andronicus after Shakespeare died?
Thomas Middleton likely added the fly-killing scene after Shakespeare died in 1616. This scene appears in the First Folio text of 1623 but is found in none of the quarto editions.
What historical sources inspired the character names in Titus Andronicus?
Shakespeare drew character names from multiple historical and literary sources including Plutarch's Life of Scipio Africanus for Caius Demetrius Marcus Martius Quintus and Sempronius. Lucius may be named after Saint Lucius or Lucius Junius Brutus founder of the Roman Republic while Lavinia takes her name from Virgil's Aeneid.
When did the first quarto edition of Titus Andronicus appear under its original title?
The earliest known printed version appeared later in 1594 under the title The Most Lamentable Romaine Tragedie of Titus Andronicus. John Danter entered A booke intitled a Noble Roman Historye of Tytus Andronicus into the Stationers Register on the 6th of February 1594.
Why was Titus Andronicus considered one of Shakespeare's most maligned plays during the seventeenth century?
Edward Ravenscroft wrote in 1687 that the original play is the most incorrect and indigested piece in all his works seeming rather a heap of rubbish than a structure. Samuel Johnson questioned the possibility of staging the play in 1765 pointing out that the barbarity of the spectacles can scarcely be conceived tolerable to any audience.