Thomas More
Thomas More entered the world on the 7th of February 1478 within the City of London. His father Sir John More was a successful lawyer who later became a judge. The family lived in Milk Street, though no contemporary record confirms this as his birthplace. Biographers starting with Cresacre More in the seventeenth century have asserted this location without proof. Thomas was the second of six children born to John and Agnes Graunger. He attended St Anthony's School which stood among London's finest institutions at the time. From 1490 until 1492 he served as a household page for John Morton Archbishop of Canterbury. Morton recognized the young man's potential and nominated him for Oxford University. More began studies there in 1492 under tutors Thomas Linacre and William Grocyn. He mastered Latin and Greek during those two years before leaving at his father's request. Legal training commenced at New Inn then Lincoln's Inn where he remained until 1502. By that year he had been called to the bar as a noted linguist. Erasmus described him as having great potential from their first meeting.
More won election to Parliament representing Great Yarmouth in 1504. He attracted public attention by opposing King Henry VII's demand for excessive money regarding Margaret Tudor's marriage. His speech moved the House to reduce the subsidy from three-fifteenths to £30,000. Henry VII never forgave this audacity but released More's father only after payment of a £100 fine. The king died in 1509 and was succeeded by Henry VIII who knighted More in 1521. He became undersheriff of London serving with considerable responsibility from 1510. In 1514 he served as Master of Requests and Privy Counsellor. Diplomatic missions took him to Calais and Bruges accompanying Cardinal Wolsey. Thomas Cromwell later appointed him Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster in 1525. Wolsey's fall led to More succeeding as Lord Chancellor in October 1529. This office made him chief government minister responsible for equity and common law. He dispatched cases with unprecedented rapidity during his tenure until May 1532. No foreign wars occurred while he held this highest official position.
More viewed Protestant Reformation as heresy threatening church unity and social order. He wrote books against Martin Luther Huldrych Zwingli and William Tyndale in English and Latin. His Dialogue concerning Heresies appeared in 1529 responding to Tyndale's translation of the New Testament. Tyndale replied with An Answer to Sir T. More's Dialogue published in 1530. More countered with Confutation of Tyndale's Answer containing half a million words. He accused Tyndale of using biased terms like congregation instead of church. Six people burned at the stake for heresy during More's chancellorship matching Wolsey's rate. These included Thomas Hitton Thomas Bilney Richard Bayfield John Tewkesbury Thomas Dusgate and James Bainham. The Star Chamber court could affirm death sentences but not impose them directly. Historian Diarmaid MacCulloch found no evidence More personally tortured anyone. Biographer Peter Ackroyd noted charges about whipping heretics lacked independent proof. Modern historians debate whether More zealously approved burning or merely followed legal procedure. Catholic historian Eamon Duffy stated More never presided over heresy trials since laymen could not do so.
Henry VIII demanded clergy take an oath acknowledging him as Supreme Head of Church in 1531. Bishops signed under threat of prosecution adding words limiting obedience to Christ's law. More refused to sign this Oath of Supremacy while remaining privately opposed to royal actions. Parliament reinstated praemunire charges making it criminal to support papal authority over the king. In May 1532 More resigned from Lord Chancellor after convocation submitted to royal threats. He stayed in Henry's favor despite refusing to acknowledge Anne Boleyn's queenship formally. His refusal to attend Anne's coronation in 1533 was interpreted as a snub though technically not treason. Cromwell accused him of counseling Elizabeth Barton Holy Maid of Kent who prophesied against the divorce. The Privy Council dropped these charges after More gave respectful answers. On the 13th of April 1534 he faced commission requiring allegiance to Act of Succession. This law directed monies previously paid to Rome into King's coffers and defined faith. More accepted Parliament's right to declare Anne legitimate but denied spiritual validity of second marriage. His fate sealed when he refused oath confirming Anne's role and children's succession rights.
The trial occurred on the 1st of July 1535 before judges including Thomas Audley new Lord Chancellor. Anne Boleyn's relatives Norfolk Thomas Howard Duke of Norfolk and her father Thomas Boleyn sat among them. Richard Rich testified that More had denied King's supremacy in his presence though witnesses Southwell and Palmer denied hearing details. Jury deliberated only fifteen minutes finding More guilty of violating Treasons Act 1534. More argued statute contradicted Magna Carta Church laws and English law before sentencing. He received death penalty commuted from hanging drawing quartering to decapitation by royal order. Execution took place at Tower Hill on the 6th of July 1535. Family members were excluded according to biographer Peter Ackroyd though historian Jaime Goodrich described daughters Margaret Roper and Margaret Clement present. More mounted scaffold warning it seemed weak then declared dying as king's good servant and God's first. He kissed executioner after begging pardon positioning beard so axe would not harm it. Headless corpse given to adopted daughter Margaret Clement for burial while head fixed upon London Bridge pike for one month. Daughter later recovered severed head resting possibly in Roper Vault St Dunstan's Canterbury or Chelsea Old Church tomb.
More completed History of King Richard III between 1512 and 1519 though never finished publishing posthumously. The work influenced William Shakespeare's play Richard III despite More being seven years old when Bosworth battle ended Richard's life. Archbishop John Morton likely influenced hostility toward defeated king through rebellion participation. Utopia published in Leuven by Erasmus in 1516 became his best known controversial book. Narrator Raphael Hythlodaeus discussed modern European political issues with More character in Antwerp. Book described imaginary island state contrasting contentious social life with orderly arrangements. No lawyers existed due to law simplicity; communal ownership replaced private property. Men women educated alike; almost complete religious toleration excepted atheists who were despised. Monastic communalism may have inspired concepts yet legalizing euthanasia remained outside Church doctrine. Utopia gave rise to literary genre featuring ideal societies perfect cities their opposites. Francis Bacon New Atlantis Samuel Butler Erewhon Voltaire Candide followed this tradition. Original edition included symmetrical Utopian alphabet omitted later editions as early shorthand attempt. Two parts contained conversations on criminal treatment enclosure movement revisited fantastical concrete forms called mythical idealism.
Pope Leo XIII beatified Thomas More alongside John Fisher and fifty-two other English Martyrs on the 29th of December 1886. Pius XI canonized them both on the 19th of May 1935 preeminently for martyrdom. British press greeted ceremony with minimal hostile reception while Parliament universities officially boycotted event. Feast day established initially as the 9th of July then changed to the 22nd of June celebrating More with St John Fisher since 1970. Pope John Paul II declared him heavenly Patron of Statesmen and Politicians on the 31st of October 2000. Anglican Communion added More and Fisher as martyrs to calendar every the 6th of July commemorating execution date in 1980. Scholar Bill Sheils linked reasoning to Rose Macaulay's ironic debating point about unschismed Anglican status. Annual memorial lecture held at St Dunstan's Church where head said buried reflects long-standing tradition. Hugh Trevor-Roper called More first great Englishman known universally most saintly humanist universal man northern Renaissance. Geoffrey Elton later challenged reputation focusing on dealings with heretics ferocity centering debate. Modern commentators remain divided over character actions placing context within turbulent religious climate threats deadly catastrophes.
Erasmus defended More's character calling mind diamond thrown ditch by tyrant unable break it. Emperor Charles V stated losing best city better than such worthy councillor lost. G.K. Chesterton predicted counting greatest Englishman historical character English history. Jonathan Swift put More company Socrates Brutus Epaminondas Junius. Marxist theorists Karl Kautsky Friedrich Engels considered Utopia critique economic social exploitation pre-modern Europe. Soviet Stele Freedom placed name ninth position from top Lenin suggested monument erected 1918 near Kremlin. Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn argued Soviet communism needed enslavement forced labour foreseen Thomas More great-grandfather socialism. Robert Bolt play A Man For All Seasons portrayed tragic hero 1960 film adapted same title directed Fred Zinnemann. Paul Scofield starred winning Academy Award Best Picture actor Oscar. Charlton Heston directed made-for-television film restoring common man cut 1966 version. Hilary Mantel novels Wolf Hall Bring Up Bodies Mirror Light portray unsympathetic persecutor Protestant ally Habsburg empire. Academic historians questioned books' historical accuracy major figures portrayal. Jeremy Northam depicted peaceful devout Roman Catholic loving family patriarch television series Tudors. Al Stewart song Time Passages Far song Quick referenced life events. University San Francisco Gleeson Library Associates awarded annual Sir Thomas More Medal book collecting private collectors Elmer Belt Otto Schaefer Albert Sperisen John Mayfield Lord Wardington since 1968.
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Common questions
When was Thomas More born and where did he live as a child?
Thomas More entered the world on the 7th of February 1478 within the City of London. The family lived in Milk Street though no contemporary record confirms this specific location as his birthplace.
What role did Thomas More hold from October 1529 until May 1532?
Thomas More succeeded Cardinal Wolsey as Lord Chancellor in October 1529 to become chief government minister responsible for equity and common law. He dispatched cases with unprecedented rapidity during his tenure until May 1532 when no foreign wars occurred while he held this highest official position.
Why did Thomas More refuse to sign the Oath of Supremacy in 1531?
Henry VIII demanded clergy take an oath acknowledging him as Supreme Head of Church in 1531 which Thomas More refused to sign while remaining privately opposed to royal actions. Parliament reinstated praemunire charges making it criminal to support papal authority over the king after his refusal.
How did Thomas More die and what happened to his head after execution?
Execution took place at Tower Hill on the 6th of July 1535 where More received death penalty commuted from hanging drawing quartering to decapitation by royal order. His headless corpse was given to adopted daughter Margaret Clement for burial while his severed head fixed upon London Bridge pike for one month before recovery.
What ideas about society did Thomas More describe in Utopia published in 1516?
Utopia published in Leuven by Erasmus in 1516 described imaginary island state contrasting contentious social life with orderly arrangements where communal ownership replaced private property. No lawyers existed due to law simplicity and men women educated alike with almost complete religious toleration excepted atheists who were despised.