Supreme Court of the United States
The Supreme Court of the United States first convened on the 1st of February 1790, inside the Merchants' Exchange Building in New York City. This location served as the temporary home for a judicial body that had no permanent residence until 1935. The Constitution itself provided only a general outline for the court in Article Three, leaving Congress to define its structure through the Judiciary Act of 1789. That act established six seats: one chief justice and five associate justices. President George Washington nominated John Jay as the first chief justice and appointed John Rutledge, William Cushing, Robert H. Harrison, James Wilson, and John Blair Jr. as associates. All six received Senate confirmation on the 26th of September 1789. Harrison declined his seat, so Washington later nominated James Iredell to fill the vacancy. The inaugural session ran from February 2 through the 10th of February 1790, but the court heard no substantive cases until 1791. Early decisions like West v. Barnes focused on procedure rather than constitutional power. The nation's capital moved to Philadelphia in 1790, taking the court with it to Old City Hall. When Washington became the capital in 1800, the court occupied spaces within the Capitol Building for over a century.
John Marshall served as chief justice from 1801 to 1835, transforming the court into a powerful institution. Before his tenure, the court lacked prestige and heard few cases. His landmark decision in Marbury v. Madison asserted judicial review, allowing the court to invalidate acts of Congress that violated the Constitution. This power had been used earlier in Ware v. Hylton (1796) to overturn state laws conflicting with treaties, but Marshall made it central to the court's identity. He also ended the British tradition of each justice issuing separate opinions, replacing them with a single majority opinion. The Taney Court (1836, 1864) is remembered for Dred Scott v. Sandford, a ruling that helped precipitate the Civil War. Later courts expanded civil liberties significantly. The Warren Court (1953, 1969) declared segregation unconstitutional in Brown v. Board of Education and established rights like privacy in Griswold v. Connecticut. It required police to inform suspects of their rights in Miranda v. Arizona. The Rehnquist Court (1986, 2005) revived federalism limits while striking down sodomy laws in Lawrence v. Texas. The current Roberts Court has ruled on same-sex marriage in Obergefell v. Hodges and abortion access in Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization.
The president nominates justices, and the Senate confirms them through an advice-and-consent process defined by Article II, Section 2, Clause 2 of the Constitution. No specific qualifications exist for age or experience, though modern nominees often appear before the Senate Judiciary Committee. Harlan Fiske Stone was the first nominee to testify in 1925, and John Marshall Harlan II began the modern questioning practice in 1955. Rejections are rare; the Senate explicitly denied twelve nominees, most recently Robert Bork in 1987. Filibusters have blocked nominations too, such as Abe Fortas in 1968 and Neil Gorsuch in 2017. Justices hold lifetime tenure during good behavior, meaning they serve until death, retirement, resignation, or impeachment. Only Samuel Chase was impeached, in 1804, but he was acquitted. Vacancies occur unpredictably. Hugo Black and John Marshall Harlan II left within days of each other in September 1971, creating the shortest gap between vacancies. An 11-year span occurred from 1994 to 2005 between Harry Blackmun's retirement and William Rehnquist's death. On average, a new justice joins every two years. Jimmy Carter is the only president to leave office after one full term without appointing anyone.
For much of its history, every justice was a man of Northwestern European descent and almost always Protestant. Thurgood Marshall became the first African American justice in 1967. Sandra Day O'Connor broke the gender barrier in 1981 as the first woman. Antonin Scalia arrived in 1986 as the first Italian-American. Ruth Bader Ginsburg joined in 1993 as the first Jewish woman. Sonia Sotomayor became the first Hispanic justice in 2009. Elena Kagan followed in 2010. Amy Coney Barrett was confirmed in 2020 as the fifth woman. Ketanji Brown Jackson took her seat in 2022 as the sixth woman and first African American woman. Religious diversity has also shifted; most recent justices are Catholic or Jewish. Six foreign-born justices served historically, including James Wilson from Scotland and Felix Frankfurter from Austria-Hungary. About one-third of all justices were U.S. military veterans. Ideologically, the court remained relatively bipartisan until 1991. Before that year, only about half of one percent of important decisions split along party lines. Since then, Republican appointees have consistently taken conservative positions while Democratic appointees lean liberal. In 2021, unanimous decisions dropped to nearly 30%, while party-line rulings hit a record high of 21%. A 2024 poll showed seven out of ten respondents believed the court decides cases based on ideology rather than impartiality.
The Supreme Court receives approximately 7,000 petitions for writs of certiorari annually but grants fewer than 80. The rule of four allows any four justices to grant review. Conferences are private meetings where only the nine justices vote; clerks and the public are excluded. Most denials occur without comment, leaving lower court rulings intact. Original jurisdiction covers disputes between states, such as New Jersey v. Delaware regarding water rights. Almost all other cases arrive via appellate jurisdiction through certiorari. Circuit riding required justices to travel across assigned regions twice yearly under the Judiciary Act of 1789. This practice ended in 1891 with the Circuit Court of Appeals Act and was fully abolished by Congress in 1911. Today, each justice serves as circuit justice for one or two judicial circuits, handling routine applications like stays or injunctions. Requests for bail or habeas corpus were common historically but rarely happen now. The court relies heavily on amicus briefs from outside groups, which have increased significantly despite criticism about their accuracy. Written evidence includes law review articles and records assembled by lower courts. Oral arguments occur twice daily during sessions held Mondays, Tuesdays, and Wednesdays from October through late April.
The Supreme Court Building opened in 1935 after occupying various spaces within the Capitol for over a century. Designed by Cass Gilbert, the four-story marble structure sits at One First Street NE near the Capitol. It contains a courtroom, justices' chambers, an extensive law library, meeting rooms, and even a gymnasium. The building maintains its own police force separate from Capitol Police. Public access is limited; visitors may attend oral arguments seated on a first-come basis, with roughly 250 seats available. Important cases often see people waiting overnight to secure a spot. Lectures run hourly when the court is not in session. Opinions are released starting at 10am on non-argument days. The cafeteria, gift shop, and exhibits remain open weekdays from 9am to 4:30pm. Weekends and holidays close the facility. Visitors cannot tour the actual courtroom unaccompanied. The interior features classical architecture sympathetic to surrounding government buildings. Justices sit according to seniority, with the chief justice centered and others alternating right to left based on service length. Group photos follow this same order, placing five senior members in front and four junior ones standing behind.
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Common questions
When did the Supreme Court of the United States first convene?
The Supreme Court of the United States first convened on the 1st of February 1790 inside the Merchants' Exchange Building in New York City. The court heard no substantive cases until 1791 despite holding its inaugural session from February 2 through the 10th of February 1790.
Who was the first chief justice of the Supreme Court of the United States and when were justices confirmed?
John Jay served as the first chief justice after President George Washington nominated him to lead the Supreme Court of the United States. Six justices including John Rutledge, William Cushing, Robert H. Harrison, James Wilson, and John Blair Jr received Senate confirmation on the 26th of September 1789.
What landmark decision established judicial review for the Supreme Court of the United States?
Marbury v. Madison asserted judicial review allowing the Supreme Court of the United States to invalidate acts of Congress that violated the Constitution. Chief Justice John Marshall made this power central to the court's identity during his tenure from 1801 to 1835.
When did the Supreme Court of the United States open its permanent building at One First Street NE?
The Supreme Court of the United States opened its permanent building designed by Cass Gilbert in 1935 after occupying various spaces within the Capitol for over a century. The four-story marble structure sits at One First Street NE near the Capitol and contains a courtroom plus justices chambers.
How many petitions does the Supreme Court of the United States receive annually and how many cases are granted?
The Supreme Court of the United States receives approximately 7,000 petitions for writs of certiorari annually but grants fewer than 80 cases. The rule of four allows any four justices to grant review while most denials occur without comment leaving lower court rulings intact.