Soviet crewed lunar programs
In August 1964, the Soviet government issued Decree 655-268. This document ordered Vladimir Chelomei to develop a lunar flyby program with a first flight by late 1966. The same decree instructed Sergei Korolev to build a landing program for completion by 1967. Publicly, Moscow denied any competition with the United States Apollo program. Behind closed doors, two distinct teams raced toward the lunar surface. Korolev initially focused on heavy orbital stations and Mars missions instead of the Moon. His early designs included the super-heavy N-1 rocket capable of lifting 75 tons into orbit. By 1963, he shifted focus to a three-launch lunar landing strategy using Soyuz components. Later improvements increased the N-1 payload capacity to 93 tons through engine adjustments and weight reduction.
Vladimir Chelomei led a competing design bureau that proposed the UR-500K rocket. This vehicle later became known as the Proton rocket. Chelomei's team developed the LK-1 spacecraft for cislunar orbits. They also planned a full landing mission using the massive UR-700 rocket. Their approach relied on multiple launches rather than Korolev's single-launch concept. Korolev eventually redesigned his own flyby program to use Chelomei's Proton rocket. This collaboration occurred after Soviet leadership assigned the flyby task to Korolev in September 1965. The rivalry between OKB-1 and Chelomei's bureau created parallel development tracks. Both sides sought political favor while engineering different paths to the same destination. The competition intensified after Korolev died following surgery in January 1966.
The Zond program utilized Soyuz 7K-L1 spacecraft launched by three-stage Proton rockets. These vehicles weighed 5.5 tons and carried modified modules from the main Soyuz craft. In September 1968, Zond 5 sent two tortoises around the Moon and back safely. A crewed mission was scheduled for the 8th of December 1968 but faced cancellation due to insufficient readiness. Apollo 8 achieved lunar orbit at the end of that year before the Soviets could launch their first manned flight. Political interest evaporated once American astronauts orbited the Moon. Reserve units flew unpiloted missions through 1970. By the end of that year, the entire Zond program received official cancellation status. The government kept all details secret until 1990 under glasnost policies.
The N1 rocket served as the primary launcher for Soviet lunar landing attempts. It featured thirty engines in its first stage instead of the original twenty-four. This configuration allowed a payload capacity of 93 tons to low Earth orbit. The L3 complex included both the LOK command module and the smaller LK lander. Only one cosmonaut would descend to the surface while another remained in orbit aboard the LOK. Transfer between spacecraft required an extravehicular spacewalk rather than an internal tunnel. Block D engines slowed the complex into lunar orbit before separation occurred. The LK used Blok E engines for final descent and ascent from the lunar surface. Automated docking returned the cosmonaut to the waiting LOK after sample collection.
Four test launches of the N1 rocket failed between 1969 and 1972. The second launch on the 3rd of July 1969 destroyed the rocket and entire launch complex. This disaster delayed the program by two years despite scheduled efforts to upstage Apollo 11. Improvements followed each crash but could not prevent subsequent failures. The third and fourth launches carried dummy versions of the 7K-LOK and regular 7K-L1E spacecraft. A fifth attempt using modified N1F rockets was planned for August 1974 with full crewed capability. If successful, this mission would have led to five expeditions between 1976 and 1980. Instead, the program faced cancellation in May 1974 following continued technical difficulties.
Two training groups formed in 1966 to prepare for different lunar missions. Vladimir Komarov commanded one group that included Yuri Gagarin and Nikolayev. They prepared for Soyuz qualification flights and Proton-launched cis-lunar missions. Korovam died when his parachute malfunctioned during Soyuz 1 spaceflight. His capsule smashed into Earth at high speed after a control failure. Alexei Leonov led the second group focused on landing missions. Commanders under Leonov included Popovich, Belyayev, Volynov, and Klimuk. Engineer-cosmonauts Makarov, Voronov, Rukavishnikov, Artyukhin also trained for these roles. After Komarov's death, Gagarin left training and groups were restructured. Leonov holds the strongest claim as the Soviets' first choice for the Moon landing.
American success with Apollo 11 in July 1969 removed justification for Soviet lunar landings. Development continued into the early 1970s despite lost political momentum. The LK spacecraft completed three uncrewed test flights in low Earth orbit by 1970-1971. Kosmos 379, Kosmos 398, and Kosmos 434 tested various components of the system. The Krechet spacesuit underwent testing alongside support systems. Five LK modules and three LOK units remain preserved in designer museums today. Nearly 150 engines from N1F first stages sold to other launchers around 2000. The program officially ended in May 1974 when leadership chose space station development instead. Future efforts shifted toward Mars missions with unclear objectives and automated soil delivery programs.
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Common questions
When did the Soviet government issue Decree 655-268 to start its lunar programs?
The Soviet government issued Decree 655-268 in August 1964. This document ordered Vladimir Chelomei and Sergei Korolev to develop competing lunar flyby and landing programs respectively.
What was the payload capacity of the N1 rocket after improvements were made?
Improvements increased the N1 rocket payload capacity to 93 tons through engine adjustments and weight reduction. The vehicle featured thirty engines in its first stage instead of the original twenty-four.
Why was the Zond program officially cancelled at the end of 1970?
Political interest evaporated once American astronauts orbited the Moon with Apollo 8. Reserve units flew unpiloted missions through 1970 before the entire Zond program received official cancellation status by the end of that year.
Which date marked the second launch failure of the N1 rocket?
The second launch on the 3rd of July 1969 destroyed the rocket and entire launch complex. This disaster delayed the program by two years despite scheduled efforts to upstage Apollo 11.
Who was the Soviets' first choice for the Moon landing according to the text?
Alexei Leonov holds the strongest claim as the Soviets' first choice for the Moon landing. He led a training group focused on landing missions that included commanders Popovich, Belyayev, Volynov, and Klimuk.