Saturn V
In September 1945, German rocket technologist Wernher von Braun arrived in the United States under Operation Paperclip. This program authorized by President Truman brought over 1,600 German engineers and technicians from former Nazi Germany to work for the U.S. government. Von Braun had helped create the V-2 rocket during World War II but found himself assigned to Fort Bliss, Texas with very little to do. His team received only primitive wooden workshops and could not leave the base without a military escort. He later told Daniel Lang of The New Yorker that at Peenemünde they were coddled while here they counted pennies. By 1957, the Soviet launch of Sputnik 1 changed everything. The American Army turned to von Braun's team who had created the Jupiter series of rockets. The Juno I rocket launched the first American satellite in January 1958. Von Braun considered the Jupiter series an infant Saturn.
Between 1960 and 1962, the Marshall Space Flight Center designed a series of Saturn rockets for Earth orbit and lunar missions. NASA initially planned to use Earth orbit rendezvous or direct ascent methods which required extremely large rockets like the proposed Nova vehicle. Thomas Dolan and his team from Vought Astronautics Division studied the lunar orbit rendezvous method as early as 1960. John Houbolt argued throughout 1961 that this approach offered the simplest landing with the most cost-efficient launch vehicle. James Chamberlin proposed using a two-man spacecraft to send a one-man lander to the Moon surface. In June 1962, Wernher von Braun announced lunar orbit rendezvous would be the Marshall Space Flight Center choice. NASA administrator James E. Webb officially selected this configuration on the 7th of November 1962. On the 25th of January 1962, NASA approved building the C-5 three-stage rocket with five F-1 engines in its first stage.
The S-IC first stage stood tall and measured wide at its base. Boeing built this massive component at the Michoud Assembly Facility in New Orleans. Five Rocketdyne F-1 engines arrayed in a quincunx provided thrust at sea level. The center engine remained fixed while four outer engines turned hydraulically to steer the rocket. Most of the launch mass was propellant consisting of RP-1 fuel and liquid oxygen oxidizer. The S-II second stage used liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen with five J-2 engines arranged similarly. North American Aviation constructed this section at Seal Beach, California. More than 90 percent of the fully fueled stage weight came from propellant. The S-IVB third stage featured a single J-2 engine and used a common bulkhead to separate tanks. Douglas Aircraft Company built this unit at Huntington Beach, California. It burned for about 165 seconds during the first burn and 312 seconds for the second burn. All stages utilized aluminum alloys including 7075 and 2219 varieties for structural integrity.
A boilerplate Apollo spacecraft designated BP-027 served as the test article for all dynamic testing configurations. This mockup matched actual flight hardware in size shape mass and center of gravity without requiring completion of the entire spacecraft. Dynamic tests examined vehicle response to lateral longitudinal and torsional excitation simulating conditions experienced in flight. Configuration I tested the entire stack for bending and vibration characteristics as if just launched. Configuration II simulated conditions after the first stage jettisoned while configuration III tested only the third stage and Apollo spacecraft. Tests began with Configuration III in late 1965 before moving to Configuration One which finished on March 11. On the 3rd of August 1967, Marshall Space Flight Center announced successful completion of the dynamic test program. Thirteen missions launched from Kennedy Space Center between the 9th of November 1967 and the 14th of May 1973. Nine flights carried 24 astronauts to the Moon from Apollo 8 through Apollo 17. The Saturn V remains the only launch vehicle to have carried humans beyond low Earth orbit.
The Mobile Service Structure moved to Launch Complex 39A around two months before each launch date. Technicians fueled the first stage up with RP-1 about 21 days prior since liquid oxygen and hydrogen are cryogenic. At T-minus 7 hours 30 minutes, liquid oxygen tanks on all three stages began loading. Liquid hydrogen tanks started filling at T-minus 5 hours beginning with the second stage then the third. Both fuel types required continuous refilling as previously loaded fuel boiled and evaporated. Crew members entered the Command Module at T-minus 2 hours 40 minutes with the hatch closing 40 minutes later. At T-minus 8 minutes, the onboard computer armed itself while final Go/No-Go came from controllers at T-minus 5 minutes 45 seconds. First-stage ignition initiated at T-minus 8.9 seconds with the center engine igniting first followed by opposing outboard pairs. The rocket reached maximum dynamic pressure at about T-plus 1 minute 6 seconds when crew experienced 4 g forces. The center engine cut to reduce g forces to 3 g before shutting down four outboard engines around T-plus 2 minutes 40 seconds.
In 1965, the Apollo Applications Program created plans for a space station using Saturn hardware. Von Braun's earlier 1964 wet workshop concept involved launching a spent S-II second stage into orbit for outfitting. By 1969, funding cuts eliminated procuring more Apollo hardware forcing cancellation of some Moon landing flights. This freed up at least one Saturn V allowing replacement of the wet workshop with the dry workshop concept now known as Skylab. The station built on ground from a surplus Saturn IB second stage launched atop live stages of a Saturn V. A backup station constructed from a third stage sits today at the National Air and Space Museum. In the early 1970s Congress began cutting NASA budgets due to public attention shifting toward the Vietnam War. Proposed uses included Prospector robotic rovers and nuclear rocket stage RIFT test programs. All planned uses canceled with cost being a major factor. Edgar Cortright stated decades later that JPL never liked the big approach and he lost the argument against it.
One complete Saturn V stands horizontally displayed at the U.S. Space & Rocket Center in Huntsville made from SA-500D test stages. These components were not meant for flight but displayed outdoors from 1969 until restoration completed in 2007. Another display combines first stage from SA-514 second stage from SA-515 and third stage from SA-513 at Johnson Space Center. This represents the only display consisting entirely of stages intended to be launched. A third example exists at Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex combining S-IC-T test stage with second and third stages from SA-514. The S-IC stage from SA-515 originally sat at Michoud Assembly Facility before moving to Infinity Science Center in Mississippi. On the 3rd of September 2002 astronomer Bill Yeung discovered an object designated J002E3 suspected to be an asteroid. Spectral analysis revealed white titanium dioxide covering its surface matching paint used on Saturn V rockets. Calculations identified this as likely the Apollo 12 S-IVB stage which remained in weakly captured Earth orbit after a burn lasting too long. It entered solar orbit in 1971 before returning to Earth orbit 31 years later.
Common questions
When did Wernher von Braun arrive in the United States under Operation Paperclip?
Wernher von Braun arrived in the United States in September 1945 under Operation Paperclip. This program authorized by President Truman brought over 1,600 German engineers and technicians from former Nazi Germany to work for the U.S. government.
What date did NASA officially select lunar orbit rendezvous as the Saturn V configuration?
NASA administrator James E. Webb officially selected lunar orbit rendezvous on the 7th of November 1962. This decision followed an announcement by Wernher von Braun in June 1962 that this method would be the Marshall Space Flight Center choice.
Which companies built the three stages of the Saturn V rocket?
Boeing built the S-IC first stage at the Michoud Assembly Facility in New Orleans. North American Aviation constructed the S-II second stage at Seal Beach, California, while Douglas Aircraft Company built the S-IVB third stage at Huntington Beach, California.
How many astronauts flew to the Moon on Saturn V missions between 1967 and 1973?
Nine flights carried 24 astronauts to the Moon from Apollo 8 through Apollo 17. These thirteen missions launched from Kennedy Space Center between the 9th of November 1967 and the 14th of May 1973.
When was the dynamic test program for the Saturn V declared complete?
The Marshall Space Flight Center announced successful completion of the dynamic test program on the 3rd of August 1967. Tests began with Configuration III in late 1965 before moving to Configuration One which finished on March 11.
What is the origin of the object designated J002E3 discovered by Bill Yeung?
Calculations identified the object as likely the Apollo 12 S-IVB stage which remained in weakly captured Earth orbit after a burn lasting too long. It entered solar orbit in 1971 before returning to Earth orbit 31 years later when astronomer Bill Yeung discovered it on the 3rd of September 2002.