Orca

• 1. Introduction

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  The orca, also known as the killer whale, is the largest member of the oceanic dolphin family. Some orcas have been seen swimming with dead salmon balanced on their heads, like odd little hats. It is a playful image for an animal with such a formidable reputation.

  This documentary asks how many kinds of orca there really are. It asks why a creature with such a fearsome name has so rarely harmed people in the wild. And it asks what happens to a species once humans start paying close attention to it.

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• 2. Names and Types

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  Since the 1960s, the name orca has steadily replaced killer whale in everyday speech. The older name came from ancient sailors, who watched these animals hunt larger whales.

  The International Code of Zoological Nomenclature traces orca to a Latin word meaning a large-bellied pot. Some sources prefer a darker link between the genus name Orcinus and Orcus, a realm of the dead, and even the orcs of fantasy. The Code says Orcinus is simply a derived form with a masculine ending. Ancient Romans used orca for these animals, possibly borrowing from the Greek oryx, a word applied to several kinds of whale. Blackfish, a name shared with other cetaceans, also survives, while grampus is now rarely heard.

  In 1558, Conrad Gessner wrote the first scientific description of an orca, in his Piscium & aquatilium animantium natura. He worked from a dead stranded animal in the Bay of Greifswald, which had drawn a great deal of local interest. Carl Linnaeus then described the species formally in the 1758 tenth edition of his Systema Naturae.

  The oceanic dolphin family holds 35 species and first appeared about 11 million years ago. The orca lineage probably split off soon after. In build, the orca resembles the false killer whale, the pygmy killer whale and the pilot whales. Yet a study of cytochrome b gene sequences pointed to the snubfin dolphins of the genus Orcaella as its closest living relatives. A 2018 study placed it beside a group that includes Lagenorhynchus and Cephalorhynchus. A 2019 study made it sister to every other dolphin family member except the Atlantic white-sided dolphin.

  In 2008, the International Union for Conservation of Nature wrote: "The taxonomy of this genus is clearly in need of review, and it is likely that O. orca will be split into a number of different species or at least subspecies over the next few years." Researchers recognize three to five types. Off the west coast of North America, they have identified fish-eating residents, mammal-eating transients and offshores. Genetic testing refuted the long-held idea that mammal-eating orcas in different regions are closely related.

  A 2024 study supported raising the Eastern North Pacific residents and transients to separate species, named O. ater and O. rectipinnus. The Society for Marine Mammalogy declined, citing doubt over whether these were species or subspecies. Pending a fuller global review, it provisionally treated them as subspecies, with O. o. orca as the nominate subspecies.

  Four types have been documented in the Antarctic, labelled A to D. In the 1980s, Soviet researchers described two dwarf species, Orcinus nanus and Orcinus glacialis, but most cetacean researchers doubt them. Complete mitochondrial sequencing suggests types B and C deserve species status, as do the North Pacific transients. A 2019 study found type D distinct and possibly a unique species.

  Whichever labels win out, the animal itself is easy to recognize, because its pattern has few lookalikes.

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• 3. Body and Range

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  Adult males typically measure 6 to 8 m and weigh more than 6 t. Females are smaller, usually 5 to 7 m and about 3 to 4 t. Recorded extremes are 10 m for a male and 8.5 m for a female. The largest males can pass 10 t, and the largest females 7.5 t. Newborn calves are about 2.4 m long and weigh around 180 kg.

  Sharply bordered patches of black and white define the animal. The entire lower jaw is white, and the white spreads along the belly and up onto the flanks. Behind and above each eye sits an oval white patch. A grey or white saddle patch lies behind the dorsal fin. Calves are born with yellow or orange where adults are white. Some Antarctic orcas look brown and yellow because of diatoms in the water, and others have pale grey to nearly white backs. Both albino and melanistic orcas have been documented.

  A male's dorsal fin stands about 1.8 m high, more than twice the height of a female's. His fin is an elongated triangle, while hers is more curved. Pectoral fins are large and rounded like paddles, and a male's are significantly larger. The snout is blunt and has none of the beak seen in other dolphins. The teeth are very strong. When the mouth shuts, the upper teeth slot into gaps between the lower ones. The front teeth tilt forward and outward, which protects them from the violent jerking of struggling prey.

  Orcas see well above and below the water, hear excellently, and have a good sense of touch. Their echolocation is exceptionally sophisticated. They send out clicks and listen for the echoes, learning where prey is and what it is like. Body temperature runs from 36 to 38 C, and blubber 7.6 to 10 cm thick insulates them. The pulse is about 60 beats per minute at the surface and drops to 30 when the animal is submerged.

  In the North Pacific, published directories carry photographs and names for hundreds of individual orcas. Each animal can be recognized by its dorsal fin and saddle patch, because nicks, scratches, tears and the pattern of white or grey are unique. This photographic identification lets researchers count the local population every year rather than estimate it. It has also revealed much about life cycles and social structures.

  Orcas live in all oceans and most seas, but they favor high latitudes and coasts over open water. Major study sites include the coasts of Iceland and Norway, the Valdés Peninsula of Argentina, the Crozet Islands, New Zealand, and the west coast of North America from California to Alaska. Systematic surveys put the highest densities, above 0.40 individuals per 100 km2, around the Norwegian coast, along the Aleutian Islands and the Gulf of Alaska, and in the Southern Ocean off Antarctica. Densities are called common, at 0.20-0.40, off British Columbia, Washington and Oregon, and around Iceland and the Faroe Islands.

  At the edge of the Antarctic pack ice, orcas are believed to venture into the denser ice, finding open leads much as beluga whales do in the Arctic. In Arctic waters they are only seasonal visitors and stay away from the pack ice in summer. As sea ice declines rapidly in the Hudson Strait, their range now reaches deep into the northwest Atlantic. Orcas also sometimes swim into rivers. They have been documented 100 mi up the Columbia River in the United States, and in the Fraser River in Canada and the Horikawa River in Japan.

  Worldwide counts are uncertain, but a recent consensus put the minimum at 50,000 in 2006. Local estimates include roughly 25,000 in the Antarctic and 8,500 in the tropical Pacific. The cooler northeast Pacific holds 2,250-2,700, and the waters off Norway hold 500-1,500. In the 2000s, Japan's Fisheries Agency estimated 2,321 orcas in the seas around Japan.

  Each summer, the same individuals return to the coasts of British Columbia and Washington. Despite decades of research, where they go for the rest of the year remains unknown.

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• 4. Hunters of the Sea

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  An orca eats about 227 kg of food on an average day. As apex predators, orcas have no natural predators of their own. They are sometimes called wolves of the sea because they hunt in groups like wolf packs. Their prey includes fish, cephalopods, mammals, seabirds and sea turtles. Different populations specialize, and some have a dramatic impact on their prey. Whales in tropical areas seem to have more generalized diets, because food is less productive there. Most hunting happens at shallow depths, though orcas sometimes dive several hundred metres.

  Salmon make up 96% of the diet of northeast Pacific residents, and Chinook account for 65% of the salmon they eat. Chum salmon are also taken, but the smaller sockeye and pink salmon are not significant. Some populations in the Norwegian and Greenland seas specialize in herring, following the fish on their autumn migration to the Norwegian coast. There, orcas use carousel feeding. They herd herring into a tight ball with bursts of bubbles or flashes of their white undersides, then slap the ball with their tail flukes. Up to 15 fish are stunned or killed at a time, and the orcas eat them one by one.

  In New Zealand, sharks and rays appear to be important prey, from eagle rays and stingrays to blue sharks, basking sharks and shortfin makos. Orcas herd sharks to the surface and strike them with their flukes. Bottom-dwelling rays are cornered, pinned to the ground and carried up. Elsewhere, orcas have taken broadnose sevengill sharks, whale sharks and even great white sharks. For great whites, they flip the shark onto its back, which induces a paralysis called tonic immobility, and they go after the liver. The arrival of orcas can send white sharks fleeing to forage elsewhere.

  Smaller dolphins and porpoises are chased to exhaustion. When the target is a highly social species, a pod tries to separate one individual from its group. Arctic orcas may attack belugas and narwhals trapped in pools enclosed by sea ice. Pilot whales, by contrast, have been recorded mobbing and chasing orcas, although some predation on pilot whales is recorded in Iceland, the Caribbean and Peru.

  On three occasions in 2019, orcas killed blue whales off the south coast of Western Australia, among them an animal measuring 18-22 m. Sperm, grey, humpback and minke whales are also prey, and calves are the usual targets. A hunt begins with a chase and ends in a violent attack on the exhausted victim. Tooth rake marks often reveal survivors. Female sperm whales sometimes ring their calves with flukes facing outward to repel attackers. Humpback whales may mob orcas that attack humpback calves or juveniles.

  Before industrial whaling, great whales may have been the orca's main food. The sound of exploding harpoons may have signalled scavenging chances, and compressed air that inflated carcasses made them float. Yet the devastation of great whale populations probably cut the supply and pushed orcas toward smaller marine mammals, which may have contributed to declines in those species too. In the Aleutian Islands, some scientists controversially blamed orcas for a drop in sea otters during the 1990s, though no direct evidence exists.

  Off Península Valdés in Argentina and on the Crozet Islands, orcas hunt South American sea lions and southern elephant seals on steeply banked beaches. They sometimes beach themselves briefly to seize prey before wriggling back to sea. This is not instinctive and can take young orcas years to practice. Adults may release a weakened animal near juveniles so they can rehearse the difficult capture. In the Antarctic, type B orcas spy-hop to find Weddell seals resting on ice floes. They then swim in groups to make waves that wash the seals into the water, where other orcas wait.

  Moose swimming between islands off the northwest coast of North America have also been prey. Penguins taken in Antarctic and sub-Antarctic waters include gentoo, chinstrap, king and rockhopper penguins, though orcas often kill seabirds and leave them uneaten. A captive orca at Marineland of Canada found it could regurgitate fish onto the surface to attract sea gulls, then eat the birds. Four others learned to copy the trick.

  Orcas reach speeds of up to 15.5 m/s. They breach, slap their tails and spyhop, holding the head above water to look around. These actions may serve courtship, communication, shaking off parasites, or play. A BBC film crew in British Columbia once saw orcas toy with a male Steller sea lion until it was exhausted, without eating it.

  Resident orcas have never been seen eating other marine mammals, yet they occasionally harass and kill porpoises and seals for no apparent reason.

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• 5. Family and Culture

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  Female orcas begin to mature at around 10-13 years old and reach peak fertility near 20. Breeding often continues until about 40, then fertility drops rapidly. Orcas are among the few animals that go through menopause, and females live for decades afterward. Wild females average 50 to 80 years. Granny, known as J2, was estimated by some researchers to be as old as 105 at her death. A biopsy sample, however, suggested 65 to 80.

  Males mature at 15 but typically do not reproduce until 21, and they can often reproduce until 59. Wild males average 29-30 years, with a maximum of about 50-60. A male known as J1 was estimated to be 59 when he died in 2010.

  Gestation lasts 15 to 18 months, and mothers usually bear a single calf about once every five years. In the first seven months of life, 37-50% of calves die. Weaning begins at around 12 months and is complete by two years. Observers in several regions report that both male and female pod members help care for the young.

  On the 2nd of December 2016, researchers off British Columbia saw infanticide in a wild population for the first time. An adult male killed the calf of a female in his own pod, and his mother joined the assault. Theory suggests he wanted to mate with the calf's mother, with his mother backing the chance for her son. The attack ended when the calf's mother struck and injured the male.

  Resident orcas of the eastern North Pacific live in a social structure unlike any other known mammal's, because both sexes stay with their mothers for life. Only elephants and higher primates live in comparably complex societies. A matriline is built around the eldest female, the matriarch, her sons and daughters, and the descendants of her daughters. The average matriline has 5.5 animals. Because females can reach age 90, as many as six generations may travel together. Members separate for only a few hours at a time. Permanent separation from a resident matriline has been recorded just once, in an orca named Luna.

  Pods are loose aggregations of one to four closely related matrilines, and they may split up for weeks or months. DNA testing shows resident males nearly always mate with females from other pods. Clans are pods with similar dialects and an older shared maternal heritage, and their ranges overlap. The highest layer is the community, made of pods that regularly associate but share neither maternal relations nor dialects.

  Transient pods are smaller, typically an adult female and one or two of her offspring. Extended or permanent separation of offspring from their natal matrilines is common. Some males become rovers, forming no long-term bonds and occasionally joining groups with reproductive females. Lifestyle seems to follow diet. Fish-eating orcas off Norway have resident-like social structures, while mammal-eating orcas in Argentina and the Crozet Islands behave more like transients. Orcas of the same sex and age group sometimes touch and surface in sync, and these behaviours are not random, which is evidence of friendships.

  Orcas make three kinds of sound: clicks, whistles and pulsed calls. Resident groups of the northeast Pacific are much more vocal than transients in the same waters. Residents feed on Chinook and chum salmon, which seem insensitive to orca calls, inferred from the hearing of Atlantic salmon. The marine mammals that transients hunt hear whale calls well, so transients are typically silent. Their voices come mostly during surfacing and milling after a kill.

  Resident dialects contain seven to 17 distinctive call types, with a mean of 11. All members of a resident pod use similar calls, and call patterns are distinctive within matrilines. Newborns produce calls like their mothers' but with a more limited repertoire. Family-specific calls are heard more often in the days after a calf's birth, which may help the calf learn them. When pods meet, dominant call types decrease and subset call types increase, a pattern called biphonation. Norwegian and Icelandic herring-eating orcas have different vocalizations for hunting. A population in McMurdo Sound, Antarctica, has 28 complex burst-pulse and whistle calls.

  Orcas have the second-heaviest brains among marine mammals, after sperm whales. They have more gray matter and more cortical neurons than any mammal, humans included. Measuring intelligence in a species so unlike us is difficult. Orcas imitate others and seem to teach skills to their kin deliberately. Alaskan orcas learned to steal fish from longlines and beat countermeasures such as unbaited decoy lines. Once, fishermen spread their boats several miles apart and took turns hauling in small catches. The tactic worked at first, but the orcas adapted quickly by splitting into groups.

  Researchers also describe wild orcas teasing humans by repeatedly moving objects the humans are trying to reach. One began tossing a chunk of ice around after a human threw a snowball. In 2025, one of the Salish Sea orcas was seen tearing off strands of bull kelp and rolling them around its body. This was the first observation of a killer whale using tools, and scientists called it allokelping.

  Dialects and other learned behaviours passed down the generations have been described as a form of animal culture. According to one author: "The complex and stable vocal and behavioural cultures of sympatric groups of killer whales (Orcinus orca) appear to have no parallel outside humans and represent an independent evolution of cultural faculties."

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• 6. Under Pressure

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  In 2008, the International Union for Conservation of Nature moved the orca from conservation dependent to data deficient. The change recognized that one or more types may be separate, endangered species. The most significant worldwide threats are depletion of prey, pollution, large-scale oil spills, and disturbance from noise and boats.

  Animals at the top of the food chain are especially at risk from toxins that accumulate in the body, including polychlorinated biphenyls, or PCBs. A survey off the Washington coast found PCB levels in orcas higher than those that had caused health problems in harbour seals. Blubber samples from the Norwegian Arctic held more PCBs, pesticides and brominated flame retardants than samples from polar bears. A 2018 study in Science found that global orca populations are poised to decline dramatically because of such pollution.

  In 2005, the United States government listed the southern resident community as an endangered population. This community of three pods lives mostly in the Georgia and Haro Straits and Puget Sound, and it does not breed outside itself. Once estimated at 200 animals, it shrank to around 90. In October 2008, the annual survey found seven missing and presumed dead, which left 83. The deaths were attributed to falling Chinook salmon numbers. By early 2019, only 75 southern residents remained.

  In September 2008, the Canadian government decided no protections beyond existing laws were needed, including the Species at Risk Act. Six environmental groups sued the federal government, arguing that orcas on the British Columbia coast faced more boat traffic, toxic waste and low salmon numbers.

  Ken Balcomb has studied orcas since 1976 from the Center for Whale Research in Friday Harbor, Washington. He is the research biologist credited with discovering that United States Navy sonar may harm orcas. In May 2003, he and other watchers near Puget Sound saw orcas behaving in agitated, haphazard ways, trying to lift their heads clear of the water. Underwater microphones picked up strange pinging, which Balcomb confirmed was sonar from a Navy frigate 12 mi away. Three years earlier in the Bahamas, 14 beaked whales had stranded on a day when Navy destroyers ran sonar exercises, and six died. CAT scans of two heads showed hemorrhaging around the brain and ears, consistent with decompression sickness.

  Underwater noise from shipping, drilling and other activity is a major worry in Johnstone Strait and Haro Strait. In the mid-1990s, loud underwater noises from salmon farms were used to scare off seals. Orcas also avoided the surrounding waters. In January 2020, the first orca found in England and Wales since 2001 washed up dead with a large fragment of plastic in its stomach.

  The Exxon Valdez oil spill hit orcas in Prince William Sound and Alaska's Kenai Fjords region. Eleven members, about half of one resident pod, disappeared in the following year. The spill damaged salmon and other prey, which in turn harmed local orcas. By 2009, scientists estimated that the AT1 transient population numbered only seven individuals and had not reproduced since the spill. Orcas are listed in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species, which regulates international trade in the animals and their parts. The AT1 group is expected to die out.

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• 7. Revered and Hunted

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  The Haida of the Pacific Northwest Coast regarded orcas as the most powerful animals in the ocean. Their mythology tells of orcas living in houses and towns under the sea, taking human form when submerged, and welcoming humans who drowned. For the Kwakwaka'wakw, the orca ruled the undersea world, with sea lions for slaves and dolphins for warriors. In Nuu-chah-nulth and Kwakwaka'wakw belief, orcas may carry the souls of dead chiefs. The Tlingit of southeastern Alaska saw the orca as custodian of the sea and benefactor of humans. The Lummi call orcas "qwe'lhol'mechen," meaning "our relations under the waves."

  A 4,000-year-old burial at the Port au Choix Archaeological Site in Newfoundland contains stone carvings that show the respect the Maritime Archaic people held for orcas. In Siberian Yupik belief, orcas appear as wolves in winter, and wolves as orcas in summer. Orcas are believed to help hunters drive walrus. A boat can stand for the animal, as can a wooden carving hung from a hunter's belt, and small offerings of tobacco or meat are strewn into the sea. The Ainu people of Hokkaido, the Kuril Islands and southern Sakhalin called orcas Repun Kamuy, the God of Sea or Offshore, who brought whales to the coast. They held traditional funerals for stranded or dead orcas, much like those for brown bears.

  Pliny the Elder gave the first written description of an orca around AD 70. He wrote: "Orcas (the appearance of which no image can express, other than an enormous mass of savage flesh with teeth) are the enemy of other kinds of whale... they charge and pierce them like warships ramming." Western cultures long feared the animal as a savage predator. Yet of the very few confirmed attacks on humans by wild orcas, none has been fatal.

  On the Terra Nova Expedition, orcas tried to tip the ice floes holding a dog team and a photographer. The barking of the sled dogs is speculated to have sounded enough like seal calls to trigger the orcas' hunting curiosity. In the 1970s, a surfer in California was bitten, but the orca then retreated. In 2005, a boy splashing in an Alaskan area frequented by harbour seals was bumped by an orca that apparently mistook him for prey.

  Competition with fishermen made orcas pests in the eyes of many. In the Pacific Northwest and Iceland, governments accepted and even encouraged shooting them. About 25% of the orcas captured in Puget Sound for aquariums through 1970 carried bullet scars. The United States Navy claimed to have deliberately killed hundreds of orcas in Icelandic waters in 1956, using machine guns, rockets and depth charges.

  The earliest known records of commercial orca hunting come from 18th-century Japan. Through the 19th and early 20th centuries, the whaling industry ignored orcas, because they yielded little oil, were fewer and were hard to catch. Once larger stocks were depleted, orcas were targeted in the mid-20th century. Between 1954 and 1997, Japan took 1,178 orcas and Norway took 987. An Antarctic catch of 916 in 1979-80 alone prompted the International Whaling Commission to recommend a ban on commercial hunting. Today, no country runs a substantial hunt, though Indonesia and Greenland permit small subsistence hunts.

  In Japan, orcas were also killed over fears of conflict with fisheries. A male-female pair in the Akashi Strait and Harimanada was killed in the Seto Inland Sea in 1957. In 1970, five whales from a pod of 11 that swam into Tokyo Bay were killed.

  Some orcas helped whalers instead. The best-known case is the orcas of Eden, Australia, including a male called Old Tom. He was reportedly spotted every winter between the 1840s and 1930, which would make him up to 90 years old. His teeth suggested he died around age 35, but that method is now thought inaccurate for older animals. Whalers more often saw orcas as a nuisance, because they gathered to scavenge meat from the catch. In Alaska's Prince William Sound, some populations may have been reduced significantly by whalers shooting them in retaliation.

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• 8. Captives and Encounters

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  In 1964, a southern resident orca known as Moby Doll was harpooned off Saturna Island and displayed alive. He was the first orca ever studied at close quarters while living. So little was known that nearly two months passed before his keepers learned he would eat fish. To the surprise of those who saw him, he was docile and made no attempt to attack humans. Studies of him produced the first scientific work on an orca's sound production, and two articles in the journal Zoologica.

  Between 1964 and 1976-50 orcas from the Pacific Northwest were captured for display, and public interest grew. In the 1970s, research pioneered by Michael Bigg revealed the species' complex social structure, its vocal communication and its extraordinarily stable mother-offspring bonds. Photo-identification let individuals be named and tracked over decades. It also showed that the Pacific Northwest population was in the low hundreds, not the thousands once assumed. The southern resident community had lost 48 members to captivity, and by 1976 only 80 remained.

  Growing public appreciation brought opposition to keeping whales in aquaria, and only one whale has been taken in North American waters since 1976. After the success of the 1993 film Free Willy, its captive star Keiko was returned to the coast of his native Iceland in 2002. David Phillips of the Earth Island Institute's International Marine Mammal Project led the effort. Keiko did not adapt to the harsh Arctic climate and died a year into his release, of pneumonia, aged 27.

  In 2002, an orphan named Springer was found in Puget Sound. She became the first whale successfully reintegrated into a wild pod after human intervention. That success raised hopes for Luna, a young orca separated from his pod, but his case was marked by controversy over whether and how to intervene. In 2006, Luna was killed by a boat propeller.

  From 1976 to 1997-55 whales were taken from the wild in Iceland, 19 in Japan and three in Argentina, not counting animals that died during capture. Live captures fell dramatically in the 1990s, and by 1999 about 40% of the 48 animals on display worldwide were captive-born. Organizations such as World Animal Protection and Whale and Dolphin Conservation campaign against captivity. Dorsal fin collapse affects 60-90% of captive males.

  Critics say captives live on average only into their 20s, while wild females who survive infancy average 46 years and wild males 31. A 2015 study coauthored by staff at SeaWorld and the Minnesota Zoo suggested no significant difference in survivorship between free-ranging and captive orcas. Critics add that wild orcas may travel up to 160 km in a day, and that tanks and performance tricks cause stress. Captive orcas have made nearly two dozen attacks on humans since the 1970s, some fatal. Between 1991 and 2010, a bull named Tilikum was involved in the deaths of three people. He featured in the 2013 film Blackfish and lived at SeaWorld from 1992 until his death in 2017.

  In March 2016, SeaWorld announced that it would end its orca breeding program and its theatrical shows. As of 2025, theatrical shows featuring orcas are still ongoing.

  Whale watching keeps growing in popularity, and it brings its own problems. About 20 vessels follow the southern residents for 12 hours a day from May to September. Researchers found these boats are in the whales' line of sight for 98-99.5% of daylight hours. Exhaust fumes degrade the air around the whales, and a gene family called cytochrome P450 1A, which responds to air pollutants, has been identified in skin biopsies of live whales and lungs of dead ones. Other factors can also trigger that gene, so a direct link cannot be drawn. Since 2017, boats off British Columbia must keep 200 metres away, up from 100. Washington State has required 180 metres since 2011.

  Beginning around 2020, one or more pods began attacking sailing vessels off the southern tip of Europe, and a few boats sank. At least 15 interactions were reported off the Iberian coast in 2020. The Atlantic Orca Working Group says as many as 500 vessels were damaged between 2020 and 2023. Near Gibraltar, a video showed an orca biting one of two rudders ripped from a catamaran. Its captain said of the orcas: "Looks like they knew exactly what they are doing. They didn't touch anything else."

  After an orca repeatedly rammed a vessel off Norway in 2023, concern grew that the behavior is spreading. Sailors are now advised to carry bags of sand, since dropping sand near the rudder is thought to confuse the animal's sonar. Experts are divided over whether the behavior is revenge or protection after a past trauma, or playful or frustrated attempts to make a propeller emit a stream of high-speed water.

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