Multilingualism
The frontage of the Constitutional Court of South Africa displays text written in eleven of that nation's twelve official languages. This visual evidence anchors a complex definition where multilingualism simply means using more than one language by an individual or group. When only two languages are involved, scholars typically use the term bilingualism instead. It is believed that multilingual speakers now outnumber monolingual speakers globally. More than half of all Europeans claim to speak at least one language other than their mother tongue. Many of these people read and write fluently in just one language however. Being multilingual offers distinct advantages for those wishing to participate in trade and globalization. Owing to easy access to information via the Internet, exposure to multiple languages has become increasingly possible. People who speak several languages are often called polyglots. Vivian Cook argued since 1992 that most multilingual speakers fall somewhere between minimal and maximal definitions. She calls these individuals multi-competent rather than fully fluent in every sense. There is no consistent definition of what constitutes a distinct language versus a dialect. Scholars often disagree whether Scots is a language in its own right or merely a dialect of English. A.J. Aitken noted this debate in The Oxford Companion to the English Language published by Oxford University Press in 1992. What is considered a language can change due to purely political reasons. One example is the creation of Serbo-Croatian as a standard language based on the Eastern Herzegovinian dialect. After the breakup of Yugoslavia, it was split into Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian and Montenegrin. Another example involves the historical dismissal of Ukrainian as a Russian dialect by Russian tsars. This policy aimed to discourage national feelings among the population.
The linguist Noam Chomsky proposed the human language acquisition device as a mechanism enabling learners to recreate rules used by surrounding speakers. Santrock documented this view in Bilingualism and Second-Language Learning published by McGraw-Hill Companies in 2008. According to Chomsky, this device wears out over time and is not normally available by puberty. He uses this theory to explain poor results some adolescents have when learning aspects of a second language. If language learning is a cognitive process rather than an acquisition device, differences between types become relative instead of categorical. Stephen Krashen led a school suggesting this alternative perspective. Rod Ellis quotes research finding that earlier children learn a second language, the better off they are regarding pronunciation. European schools generally offer secondary language classes for their students early on. Most European students now study at least two foreign languages. The European Union strongly encourages this process. Ann Fathman's research in The Relationship Between Age and Second Language Productive Ability shows differences in the rate of learning English morphology based upon age. However, the order of acquisition does not change with age. In second language class, students commonly face difficulties thinking in the target language because they are influenced by native patterns. Robert B. Kaplan believes foreign students' papers may seem out of focus due to rhetoric violating expectations of the native reader. Foreign students who mastered syntactic structures still demonstrated inability to compose adequate themes or dissertations. Logic evolved out of culture is not universal. Rhetoric varies from culture to culture and even within a given culture over time. People learning multiple languages may experience positive transfer making additional languages easier if grammar is similar. Students may also experience negative transfer interference from languages learned earlier while learning new ones later. Translanguaging supports the acquisition of new languages by forming connections from one language to another.
There is no evidence for a bilingual advantage in executive function according to current meta-analyses. Lexical difficulties are confined to those who learnt a second language later in life. Some initial reports concluded people using more than one language were more adept at language learning compared to monolinguals. This idea persisted partly due to publication bias. Individuals highly proficient in two or more languages have been reported to have marginally enhanced executive function. They also show an older onset for dementia. More recently this claim has come under strong criticism with repeated failures to replicate. Many prior studies do not reliably quantify samples of bilinguals under investigation. An emerging perspective suggests studies need granular quantifications of language experience to identify boundary conditions. Bilingual and multilingual individuals demonstrate superior auditory processing abilities compared to monolingual individuals. Several investigations compared these abilities using tasks such as gap detection and pitch pattern recognition. Results generally report superior performance among bilingual and multilingual individuals. One's level of proficiency in a second language influences auditory processing abilities. A study in 2012 showed that using a foreign language reduces decision-making biases. It was surmised that the framing effect disappeared when choices are presented in a second language. Human reasoning involves systematic analytical thought versus fast unconscious emotional reaction. A second language provides cognitive distance from automatic processes promoting analytical thought. Those who speak two languages have better critical thinking skills according to some researchers. A study published a year later found switching to a second language exempts bilinguals from social norms like political correctness. In 2014 another study showed people using a foreign language make utilitarian decisions more often when faced with moral dilemmas. Participants chose the utilitarian option more often in the Fat Man dilemma when it was presented in a foreign language. The authors surmised a foreign language lacks the emotional impact of one's native language.
Widespread multilingualism was common in early times when most people belonged to small language communities. It was necessary to know two or more languages for trade outside one's town or village. This holds good today in places of high linguistic diversity such as Sub-Saharan Africa and India. Linguist Ekkehard Wolff estimates that 50% of the population of Africa is multilingual. Some states can have multilingual policies recognizing several official languages like Canada with English and French. In some states particular languages may be associated with regions or ethnicities like Malaysia and Singapore. When all speakers are multilingual linguists classify the community by functional distribution of languages involved. Diglossia describes situations where a regional language is used informally while state language is formal. Frisia and Lusatia are well-known examples of this phenomenon. Ambilingualism occurs if no functional distribution is observed making it nearly impossible to predict which language will be used. True ambilingualism is rare but tendencies exist in Luxembourg and southern Israel. Bipart-lingualism applies if more than one language is heard but most speakers remain monolingual. The Balkans serve as an example of this category. Taxell's paradox refers to the notion that monolingual solutions are essential to realizing functional bilingualism. Swedish language in Finland schools is subordinated to Finnish for practical reasons despite positive characteristics. Code-switching involves swapping between languages allowing participation in multiple cultural groups. If proficiency is lacking, code-switching functions as a strategy. Speakers might convert elements of one language into another through calquing. This results in terms like courrier noir instead of chantage in French. Pidgins develop as fusions of two or more languages grammatically simplified yet understandable. Some pidgins evolve into creole languages such as Papiamento in Curaçao or Singlish in Singapore. In Scandinavia most speakers of Swedish, Norwegian and Danish communicate speaking their respective languages without switching. Non-convergent discourse describes using different languages within the same conversation. Reitze Jonkman introduced this term regarding Dutch and Afrikaans contact.
Computer programs are written using artificial languages known as Programming Languages. A programmer capable of reading software in multiple languages can also be called a polyglot. Multilingualisation of computer systems considers part of a continuum between internationalization and localization. A localized system has been adapted for a particular locale including user interface language and currency formats. Each instance supports only a single locale. Multilingualised software supports multiple languages for display but generally maintains a single user interface language. An internationalized system allows co-existence of several languages and character sets in interfaces. The interface language must be selectable by the user at runtime to qualify fully. Translating the user interface is usually part of the software localization process. Many applications range from a handful to dozens of languages for popular office suites. Due to English status in computing almost all commercial software is initially available in an English version. The Multilingual App Toolkit was first released with Windows 8 providing free tooling for developers. Microsoft engineers Jan A. Nelson and Camerum Lerum drove development working with third parties. With release of Windows 10 MAT delivers support for cross-platform Universal Windows Platform apps. It now supports iOS and Android apps as well. Entrepreneurs in London from Poland, China, and Turkey tend to use English for communication with customers. Their native languages remain used for work tasks and social purposes. Kovacs described this phenomenon in Australia regarding Finnish immigrants in construction speaking Finnish during hours. In Singapore bilingualism is embraced in education with English as medium of instruction. Official mother tongue is taught as second language. In multilingual countries like Belgium people master two or three chief languages. Switzerland features German, French, Italian and Romansh as national languages. Luxembourg combines Luxembourgish, French and German. Spain includes Spanish, Catalan, Basque and Galician. Malta uses Maltese, English and Italian.
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Common questions
What is the frontage of the Constitutional Court of South Africa displaying?
The frontage displays text written in eleven of that nation's twelve official languages. This visual evidence anchors a complex definition where multilingualism simply means using more than one language by an individual or group.
When did A.J. Aitken note the debate about Scots being a language versus a dialect?
A.J. Aitken noted this debate in The Oxford Companion to the English Language published by Oxford University Press in 1992. Scholars often disagree whether Scots is a language in its own right or merely a dialect of English.
How many years after 1992 did Vivian Cook argue that most multilingual speakers fall between minimal and maximal definitions?
Vivian Cook argued since 1992 that most multilingual speakers fall somewhere between minimal and maximal definitions. She calls these individuals multi-competent rather than fully fluent in every sense.
Why does Noam Chomsky believe the human language acquisition device wears out over time?
Noam Chomsky proposed the human language acquisition device as a mechanism enabling learners to recreate rules used by surrounding speakers. He uses this theory to explain poor results some adolescents have when learning aspects of a second language because the device is not normally available by puberty.
What percentage of Switzerland's GDP is augmented by multilingualism according to a study in Switzerland?
Authors state Switzerland's GDP is augmented by 10% due to multilingualism. That same study linked multilingualism to firm productivity and gross domestic production.