Mastodon
The mastodon first entered the written record in 1705, through a deal paid for in rum. A Dutch countryman found a large tooth beside the Hudson River. He sold it to Van Bruggen, a member of the New York General Assembly, for a gill of rum. Van Bruggen eventually gave it to Edward Hyde, 3rd Earl of Clarendon, known as Lord Cornbury. In a letter dated 1713, Cornbury described the tooth to the Royal Society of Great Britain. He had sent Johannis Abeel, a recorder of Albany, to dig near the original spot, and Abeel went to Claverack, New York.
The American historian Paul Semonin found that this account matches a notice in The Boston News-Letter of the 30th of July 1705. That notice reported the skeleton of a giant from biblical times, uncovered at Claverack. The femur and one of the teeth dissolved before anyone could examine them further.
The real owner of those bones was a mastodon, a North American relative of elephants and mammoths that lived from the late Miocene to the early Holocene. Nobody in 1705 had a name for it. Why did a tooth with no living counterpart among large animals grip naturalists on both sides of the Atlantic? How did a fossil end up feeding a young nation's pride? And what finally ended an animal whose family had existed for tens of millions of years?
In 1739, a French military expedition under Charles III Le Moyne, called Longueuil, explored Big Bone Lick in what is now Kentucky. The party gathered fossil bones and teeth there. In 1762, the French naturalist Louis Jean-Marie Daubenton compared the collection with specimens of living elephants and Siberian mammoths. He judged the femur and tusk to be elephant remains. The molars, he decided, came from a separate giant hippopotamus.
Shawnee accounts from 1762 are the oldest known documented interpretations of the Ohio fossils, though the traditions may be much older. In them, huge animals roamed in herds and were hunted by giants, and both eventually died out.
In 1767, Peter Collinson credited the Irish trader George Croghan with sending fossils to him and to Benjamin Franklin. Collinson concluded that the peculiar grinders were built for eating branches of trees and shrubs. Franklin later followed that view.
In 1768, the Scottish anatomist William Hunter reported that he and his brother John had noticed the teeth were unlike an elephant's. He judged the grinders to be those of a meat eater, while thinking the tusks belonged to the same animal. He called it the "pseudo-elephant" or "animal incognitum." Hunter ended by saying philosophers might regret it, but humanity should thank heaven that a truly carnivorous animal was extinct.
In 1785, Reverend Robert Annan wrote about bones that workers had found in the fall of 1780 on his farm in Hamptonburgh, Orange County, beside the Wallkill River. They dug up four molars, plus another that was broken and thrown away. Annan guessed from the grinders that the animal ate meat and had probably died out in some catastrophe.
Thomas Jefferson weighed in through Notes on the State of Virginia, published by 1785. He suggested the animal might be carnivorous, might still live in northern North America, and was related to the mammoths found in Siberia. He also used measurements of living and extinct animals to answer the Comte de Buffon, who claimed American life had degenerated. Semonin points out that Anglo-American naturalists found that theory offensive, so the fossils became political tools for inspiring American nationalism.
The argument needed something grander than a few teeth, and a farm in Newburgh, New York, would soon provide it.
In 1799, laborers digging a marl pit on John Masten's farm in Newburgh, New York, recovered a thighbone. Later digging there drew a crowd of more than a hundred onlookers. In 1801, the painter and showman Charles Willson Peale visited the site and sketched the fossils. He then bought the excavation rights and full ownership from Masten, borrowing money from the American Philosophical Society in Philadelphia to do it. A second skeleton came out of the ground with the help of a mill-like device that drained a pit 12 ft deep.
Peale mounted a complete skeleton in his Philadelphia Museum in 1804. It opened first to invited members of the Philosophical Society on the 24th of December that year. The general public followed on the 25th, paying an exhibit fee on top of regular admission. Thousands came, and the skeleton became a national symbol of the United States.
Peale's son Rembrandt carried the skeleton to Europe to promote the animal and to support Jefferson's final rebuttals against Buffon. It was received at the Muséum d'Histoire Naturelle in 1808. When Jefferson's presidency ended the next year, he wrote to the elder Peale in May 1809 that "all should agree in giving the same name to the same thing." He was responding to the European suggestion that "mastodon" replace "mammoth." Historian Keith Stewart Thomson argued that this promotion made the mastodon a symbol of American strength, while "mammoth" came to mean gigantic size.
The museum eventually went bankrupt. Around 1848, some German spectators bought the first skeleton, and it ended up in the Hessisches Landesmuseum Darmstadt, where it is displayed today. The second skeleton reached the American Museum of Natural History.
Other showmen followed. In 1839, Albert C. Koch collected a skeleton at what is now the Mastodon State Historic Site in Missouri. He classified it as Missourium and argued it was far larger than an elephant, with horizontal tusks, trunks and an aquatic lifestyle. He added fossils from a spring on the Pomme de Terre River and briefly exhibited the mounted "Missouri Leviathan" in St. Louis. After touring Europe, he sold it to the British Museum of Natural History, where Richard Owen reassembled it properly.
In 1845, laborers hired by Nathaniel Brewster uncovered another relatively complete skeleton at Newburgh while removing lake deposits to fertilize neighboring fields. After it toured New York City and New England towns, John Collins Warren acquired it for study. In 1906, at the request of the paleontologist Henry Fairfield Osborn, the financier J. P. Morgan bought this "Warren mastodon" for $30,000. He donated it to the American Museum of Natural History, where it stands today.
In 1792, the Scottish writer Robert Kerr named the species Elephas americanus, using tusks and grinders from Big Bone Lick. The tusks resembled an elephant's. The molars were covered in enamel and carried a double row of high conical cusps. Kerr was unsure where they belonged, noting that Thomas Pennant had suggested an unknown Elephas species and the common name "American elephant."
In 1799, the German naturalist Johann Friedrich Blumenbach described two fossil animals. The first, from Germany, became the woolly mammoth. The second he called a "colossal land monster of the prehistoric world," and he gave it the new genus Mammut, using the German word for mammoth. Its species name, ohioticum, came from bones dug up in Ohio. Megalonyx was named the same year, so Mammut was the second or third fossil mammal genus recognized with firm authority.
Georges Cuvier supplied the name that stuck in popular speech. According to Bill Bryson, Cuvier examined a collection of "incognitum" bones in Paris in 1795 and called the beast mastadon, meaning "nipple-teeth." Cuvier's own writings begin in 1806. He used the French "mastodonte" and "animal of Ohio," building the name from the Ancient Greek mastós, "breast," and odoús, "tooth." In 1817 he formally established the genus Mastodon, insisting it was extinct and had left no living descendants. His molar comparison pointed to hippopotamuses and pigs, not meat eaters.
Cuvier's first species, Mastodon giganteum, he nicknamed the "great mastodon." The second, Mastodon angustidens, was the "narrow-toothed mastodon," found in Europe and South America. Though his genus name was younger than several rivals, Mastodon became the most common name through the 19th century.
That popularity created a mess. Species with similar-looking molars were dumped into Mastodon, making it a wastebasket taxon. Today those species belong to genera such as Gomphotherium, Zygolophodon, Cuvieronius, Stegodon, Anancus and Notiomastodon, among others.
In 1830, John Davidson Godman created the genus Tetracaulodon from skull and tooth differences. Richard Harlan and William Cooper replied that, apart from the tusks, everything matched Mastodon giganteum. Isaac Hays defended Godman, and a bitter debate followed among American naturalists. Owen rejected both Tetracaulodon and Missourium in 1842.
Joseph Leidy ruled in 1869 that americanus was the senior species name, and he noted how variable the animal was. In 1902, Oliver Perry Hay argued that Mammut, as the oldest genus name, took priority. George Gaylord Simpson followed that rule in 1942 and 1945. He admitted that he disliked giving up the familiar name, but he set his preference aside to follow taxonomic rules.
The naming is still unsettled. In 2019, Alton C. Dooley Jr. and colleagues described Mammut pacificus from fossils at Diamond Valley Lake, near Hemet, California. The genus now holds 7 definite species, 1 of questionable affinities, and 4 Eurasian species awaiting reassessment.
Fully grown male American mastodons typically stood about 275-305 cm at the shoulder and weighed 6.8-9.2 tonnes. The average male is estimated at 2.9 m tall and 8 tonnes. That made males heavier than living Asian elephants and African forest elephants, and heavier but somewhat shorter than male African bush elephants. The Warren mastodon comes out at about 7.8 tonnes and 289 cm. Unusually large individuals may have reached 325 cm and 11 tonnes.
The secret was the build. A very broad pelvis made the mastodon so robust that it could be up to 80% heavier than an elephant of the same height. Its skull sat lower and flatter, its skeleton was stockier, and its tail was longer. The tail may have held as many as 27 tail vertebrae. A mastodon usually had 20 thoracic vertebrae, one more than a typical mammoth.
In 1976, a skeleton known as the Overmyer Mastodon came from the farm of Robert Overmyer northwest of Rochester, Indiana. Neal Woodman and Jon W. Branstrator used its 829 mm humerus to estimate a shoulder height of 230.2 cm in 2008. They called that close to average for the species, comparable to a large female or small male.
The upper tusks were long and curved upward, and some records suggest lengths of 3 m with diameters over 200 mm. Adult males had tusks 1.15-1.25 times as large as females'. Lower tusks were reduced or absent. The molars carried parallel pairs of cusps merged into sharp ridges, a pattern called zygodont.
The shaggy brown coat in so much paleoart rests on thin evidence. The only reported fur is two small hairy patches of skin on a skull from Wisconsin near Milwaukee, described only briefly. Only one hair has been imaged with a scanning electron microscope. Hairs reported in the 19th century turned out to be green algae filaments.
In 1981, K. F. Hallin and D. Gabriel suggested mastodons were hairy but suited to semiaquatic life. In 2015, Asier Larramendi argued that the long tail and huge body mass both count against a thick coat. In 2022, Matt Davis and colleagues noted that mastodons lived in subtropical Florida. They also observed that artists draw Columbian mammoths as hairy mainly so viewers can tell the two animals apart.
The stomach contents of American mastodons contain spruce needles, pine cones and grass, with occasional gourds and vine leaves. Their fossil dung is as large as an elephant's and mostly woody, with no grass in it. Tooth wear and dental calculus show they ate grass only now and then. Carbon isotope studies in Florida point to a diet of C3 plants, meaning browse rather than grass.
In Florida, they ate twigs of Taxodium. The "Heisler mastodon" of Michigan and the "Burning Tree mastodon" of Ohio suggest they also ate swamp grasses and sedge marshes around lakes. They may have drunk more than 100 L of lake water a day.
This fussy diet may explain why mastodons never moved into South America during the Great American Interchange. Reaching it meant crossing grassland, and mastodons stayed tied to closed forests, much like tapirs. The same habit let them share the continent with gomphotheres and the Columbian mammoth, which had shifted to mixed feeding or grazing.
A mastodon herd probably looked like a modern elephant herd. Adult females and young lived in bonded mixed herds. Males left on reaching sexual maturity and lived alone or in male groups. Females may have needed 9-12 years to mature, and they likely bore single calves slowly.
One male, the "Buesching mastodon," nicknamed "Fred," came from a peat farm near Fort Wayne, Indiana, in 1998. His tusks grew for about 30 years, and he lived 34 years in total. Fractured tusks and a 4-5 cm puncture in the right temporal fossa suggest he fought other males during a musth-like state. Those fights likely took place in spring or early summer.
Fred probably treated central Indiana as home but made seasonal journeys of hundreds of kilometers to find mates outside the herd of his birth. Near the end of his life he likely wandered, spending little time where his skeleton lay. He lived during the later part of the Bølling-Allerød warming period, when people were already present in North America.
The family Mammutidae split from the line leading to modern elephants at least 28 million years ago, in the Oligocene. Its earliest undisputed member, Losodokodon, lived in Kenya about 27-24 million years ago. Eozygodon followed in the earliest Miocene of Africa. Then Zygolophodon spread into Eurasia by around 19-18 million years ago and into North America by the middle Miocene.
The oldest North American trace is a fragmentary Zygolophodon molar from Massacre Lake, Nevada, dated to about 16.5-16.4 million years ago. The earliest undisputed Mammut, M. nevadanum, comes from the Thousand Creek Beds and dates to 8.0-7.1 million years ago. Current evidence says Mammut evolved from Zygolophodon within North America, with no sign that it ever dispersed outside the continent. The American mastodon itself first appears around 3.75 million years ago, in the Ringold Formation of Washington. Mammut reached peak species diversity in the Pliocene, with four species known from the Blancan stage alone.
In 2025, a mitochondrial DNA study placed the split between M. americanum and M. pacificus at 1.3 million years ago. A specimen from central Mexico hints at yet another species. In northeastern North America, four clades of American mastodon existed, likely reflecting at least three waves of migration tied to climate change.
The American mastodon became one of the most widely distributed ice-age proboscideans in North America. Its fossils run from Alaska to Florida and south to the state of Puebla in central Mexico. It was most common in the eastern United States. M. pacificum ranged across California and north to southern Idaho but avoided the Sonoran and Mojave deserts. A single record comes from Honduras.
In 2022, ancient DNA from the Kap Kobenhavn Formation in northern Greenland revealed mastodon fragments about 2 million years old. Back then, northern Greenland was 11-19 degrees Celsius warmer than today and held a boreal forest with no modern equivalent. These are among the oldest DNA fragments ever sequenced.
The Big Bone Lick site, first visited by the French in 1739, preserves a late Pleistocene crowd. Mastodon bones lie there alongside reindeer, the ancient bison Bison antiquus, a ground sloth named Megalonyx jeffersoni and the Columbian mammoth.
People likely reached North America about 19,000-14,000 calibrated years ago. Archaeologists call them Paleoindians, and they eventually gave rise to modern Native Americans. Clovis hunters left stone points with proboscideans at kill sites. Only 2 definite Mammut kill sites match Clovis technology, at Kimmswick, Missouri, and Pleasant Lake in Washtenaw County, Michigan. The tally for mammoths is 15, and for Cuvieronius it is 1. In 2008, Todd A. Surovell and Nicole M. Waguespack argued that Clovis hunters targeted proboscideans more than hunters on any other continent.
Daniel C. Fisher read the Heisler mastodon site in Calhoun County, Michigan, differently. About 50% of that skeleton survived, and he took it as proof that Paleoindians cached meat in a pond. His case rested on an experiment with partial horse carcasses preserved in a shallow lake. It also drew on a Moravian missionary's report of Inuit storing caribou carcasses in lakes. He found no evidence for the older idea that mastodons simply got stuck in marshes.
In 2023, Michael R. Waters and colleagues pushed the story earlier. They argued that bone fragments in a rib from the Manis Mastodon site in Washington state were pieces of a projectile point. The animal, they said, was hunted about 13,900 calibrated years ago, some 900 years before Clovis. Visible healing around the fragments showed the point had struck a living animal.
Mastodons vanished along with most of North America's largest animals in the end-Pleistocene extinction. Explanations point to human hunting, severe cold phases such as the Younger Dryas, or a mix of both. The last recorded American mastodon dates to the earliest Holocene, about 11,000 years ago, well after many other North American giants had gone. For at least a few thousand years before that, mastodons and Paleoindians shared the continent.
Updated
Common questions
What is a mastodon and when did it live?
A mastodon is a member of the extinct genus Mammut, a proboscidean related to elephants and mammoths. It was endemic to North America and lived from the late Miocene to the early Holocene.
How big was the American mastodon compared to modern elephants?
Fully grown male American mastodons typically stood 275-305 cm at the shoulder and weighed 6.8-9.2 tonnes. They were heavier than Asian and African forest elephants and shorter than male African bush elephants.
What did mastodons eat?
Mastodons were mainly browsers that ate conifer twigs, spruce needles, pine cones, fruits and some swamp plants. Occasional grass appears in their stomach contents, but their diet stayed mostly C3 browse.
Who first named the mastodon and where does the name come from?
Robert Kerr named the species Elephas americanus in 1792, and Johann Friedrich Blumenbach created the genus Mammut in 1799. Georges Cuvier's name Mastodon comes from Ancient Greek words meaning "breast" and "tooth."
Did early humans hunt mastodons?
Yes, Paleoindians hunted mastodons, though less often than mammoths. Two definite Clovis-era Mammut kill sites are known, at Kimmswick, Missouri, and Pleasant Lake in Michigan.
When did the mastodon go extinct and why?
The last recorded American mastodon dates to about 11,000 years ago, in the earliest Holocene. Its extinction is typically attributed to human hunting, severe cold phases like the Younger Dryas, or both.
Why was the mastodon important to early American history?
Mastodon fossils fueled American nationalism and helped Thomas Jefferson answer Buffon's claim that American animals were inferior. Charles Willson Peale's skeleton, opened to the public on the 25th of December 1804, became a national symbol.
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- 103JournalSexual dimorphism of structures showing indeterminate growth: tusks of American mastodons (Mammut americanum)Kathlyn M. Smith et al. — 2011
- 104Tusk morphology and sexual dimorphism in the Pacific mastodon (Mammut pacificus)Kathlyn M. Smith et al. — 2023
- 105BookMastodon Paleobiology, Taphonomy, and Paleoenvironment in the Late Pleistocene of New York State: Studies on the Hyde Park, Chemung, and North Java SitesJennifer A. Hodgson et al. — Palaeontographica Americana — 2008
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- 109The first specimen of mastodon hairK.F. Hallin et al. — 1981
- 110JournalHair of the American mastodon indicates an adaptation to a semiaquatic habitatK.F. Hallin — 1983
- 111JournalThe Overmyer Mastodon (Mammut Americanum) from Fulton County, IndianaNeal Woodman et al. — 2008
- 113BookElefantenreich: Eine Fossilwelt in EuropaJean van der Made — Landesamt für Denkmalpflege und Archälogie Sachsen-Anhalt & Landesmuseum für Vorgeschichte, Halle — 2010
- 114BookFirst Floridians and Last Mastodons: The Page-Ladson site in the Aucilla riverLee A. Newsom et al. — Springer — 2006
- 115JournalDiet reconstructions for end-Pleistocene Mammut americanum and Mammuthus based on comparative analysis of mesowear, microwear, and dental calculus in modern Loxodonta africanaTasha S. Cammidge et al. — 15 January 2020
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- 117JournalDiet and Habitat for Six American Pleistocene Proboscidean Species Using Carbon and Oxygen Stable IsotopesVictor A. Pérez-Crespo et al. — 2016
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- 119JournalA middle Miocene vertebrate assemblage from the Czech part of the Vienna Basin: Implications for the paleoenvironments of the Central ParatethysJakub Březina et al. — 2021
- 120JournalIntestinal contents of a late Pleistocene Mastodont from mid-continental North AmericaBradley T. Lepper et al. — 1991
- 121JournalEvidence for the diet and habitat of two late Pleistocene mastodons from the Midwest, USAHilary H. Birks et al. — 2019
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- 123JournalTaxonomy and evolution of the Plio-Pleistocene proboscidean Stegomastodon in North AmericaSpencer G. Lucas et al. — 2011
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- 125JournalProboscideans on Parade: A review of the migratory behaviour of elephants, mammoths, and mastodonsWouter J. Bonhof et al. — 2022
- 126JournalMale mastodon landscape use changed with maturation (late Pleistocene, North America)Joshua H. Miller et al. — 2022
- 127JournalMammoth (Mammuthus spp.) and American mastodont (Mammut americanum) bonesites: what do the differences mean?Gary Haynes et al. — 2003
- 128BookThe Living Elephants: Evolutionary Ecology, Behaviour, and ConservationSukumar, R. — Oxford University Press, USA — September 11, 2003
- 129NewsThe story of Fred the mastodon, who died looking for loveKai McNamee — 7 July 2022
- 130JournalA preliminary review of bone and teeth abnormalities seen in recent Loxodonta and extinct Mammuthus and Mammut, and suggested implicationsGary Haynes et al. — 27 August 2015
- 131JournalWandering mastodons reveal the complexity of Ice Age extinctionsGilbert J. Price — 2022
- 132JournalRepeated climate-driven dispersal and speciation in peripheral populations of Pleistocene mastodonsEmil Karpinski et al. — 2025-09-12
- 133JournalFossil Proboscidea from the upper Cenozoic of Central America: taxonomy, evolutionary and paleobiogeographic significanceSpencer G. Lucas et al. — 2010
- 134BookThe World of Elephants – Proceedings of the 1st International Congress, Rome October 16–20, 2001O. J. Polaco et al. — Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche — 2001
- 135JournalThe easternmost occurrence of Mammut pacificus (Proboscidea: Mammutidae), based on a partial skull from eastern Montana, USAAndrew T. McDonald et al. — 2020
- 136JournalThe proboscideans (Mammalia) from MesoamericaJoaquín Arroyo-Cabrales et al. — 2007
- 138JournalAmerican mastodon mitochondrial genomes suggest multiple dispersal events in response to Pleistocene climate oscillationsEmil Karpinski et al. — 2020
- 139JournalA 2-million-year-old ecosystem in Greenland uncovered by environmental DNAKurt H. Kjær et al. — December 2022
- 141ThesisNeogene Climate Change in Eastern North America: A Quantitative ReconstructionKyrie A. Baumgartner — East Tennessee State University — 2014
- 142JournalGrowth increments in Gomphotherium tusks and implications for late Miocene climate change in North AmericaDavid L. Fox — 2000
- 143JournalIncreased xenarthran diversity of the Great American Biotic Interchange: a new genus and species of ground sloth (Mammalia, Xenarthra, Megalonychidae) from the Hemphillian (late Miocene) of Jalisco, MexicoH. Gregory McDonald et al. — 2017
- 144BookNeogene Mammals: Bulletin 44Donald R. Prothero et al. — 2008
- 145BookGeology and Vertebrate Paleontology of Western and Southern North AmericaS. David Webb et al. — Natural History Museum Los Angeles County Science — 2008
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- 149JournalPliocene and Pleistocene vertebrates of New MexicoGary S. Morgan et al. — 2015
- 150BookLate Cretaceous and Cenozoic Mammals of North AmericaChristopher J. Bell et al. — Columbia University Press — 2004
- 151JournalCo-Occurrence of the Proboscideans Cuvieronius, Stegomastodon, and Mammuthus in the Lower Pleistocene of Southern New MexicoSpencer G. Lucas et al. — 1999
- 152JournalPleistocene (Irvingtonian, Cudahyan) vertebrates from the Texas Panhandle, and their geographic and paleoecologic significanceGerald E. Schultz — 2010
- 153JournalThe "missing glaciations" of the Middle PleistocenePhilip D. Hughes et al. — 2020
- 154JournalField Guide to Big Bone Lick, Kentucky: Birthplace of American Vertebrate PaleontologyGlenn W. Storrs et al. — 2023
- 155JournalTerminal Pleistocene human occupation of the upper Copper River basin, southern Alaska: Results of test excavations at Nataeł Na'John T. White et al. — 2022
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- 158JournalSites in the Americas with Possible or Probable Evidence for the Butchering of ProboscideansGary Haynes — 2022
- 159BookHuman-Elephant Interactions: From Past to PresentDaniel C. Fisher — Tübingen University Press — 2021
- 160JournalEstimating the frequency of coincidental spatial associations between Clovis artifacts and proboscidean remains in North AmericaMadeline E. Mackie et al. — 2021
- 161JournalEvidence supports the efficacy of Clovis points for hunting proboscideansJ. David Kilby et al. — 2022
- 162JournalNot just for proboscidean hunting: On the efficacy and functions of Clovis fluted pointsMetin I. Eren et al. — 2022
- 163JournalLate Pleistocene osseous projectile point from the Manis site, Washington—Mastodon hunting in the Pacific Northwest 13,900 years agoMichael R. Waters et al. — 2023
- 164JournalPre-Clovis Mastodon Hunting 13,800 Years Ago at the Manis Site, WashingtonMichael R. Waters et al. — 2011
- 165JournalA 130,000-year-old archaeological site in southern California, USASteven R. Holen et al. — April 2017
- 166JournalThe Cerutti MastodonGary Haynes — 2017
- 167JournalPleistocene Palaeoart of the AmericasRobert G. Bednarik — 2014
- 168JournalAmerican mastodon extirpation in the Arctic and Subarctic predates human colonization and terminal Pleistocene climate changeGrant D. Zazula et al. — 2014
- 169JournalOverkill, glacial history, and the extinction of North America's Ice Age megafaunaDavid J. Meltzer — 2020
- 170BookVanished Giants: The Lost World of the Ice AgeAnthony J. Stuart — University of Chicago Press — August 20, 2022
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- 175JournalPopulation reconstructions for humans and megafauna suggest mixed causes for North American Pleistocene extinctionsJack M. Broughton et al. — 2018
- 176JournalPost-Clovis survival of American Mastodon in the southern Great Lakes Region of North AmericaNeal Woodman Woodman et al. — 2009
- 177ThesisThe Role of the Pleistocene in Native American Oral TraditionsNicholas Landol — Binghamton University — 2022
- 178NewsAn Oral History of the Ancient Game of Sla-Hal: Man Versus AnimalsRenee Roman Nose — 2012
- 179NewsTribal gathering celebrates unifying culture of an ancient gameLynda V. Mapes — 2012
- 180JournalJefferson's old bones: did the so-called father of American vertebrate paleontology believe in fossils?Keith Thomson — 2011
- 181JournalCelebrating dinosaurs: their behaviour, evolution, growth, and physiologyPhilip J. Currie — 2023
- 182BookA Companion to Walt WhitmanBrett Barney — Blackwell Publishing — 2006
- 183STATE FOSSIL: MASTODON2002
- 184Mastodon10 October 2014
- 187NewsPeters introduces bipartisan proposal to designate the first national fossilKyle Davidson — 2024
- 188Replica
- 189BookThe American Steam Locomotive in the Twentieth CenturyTom Morrison — McFarland — 2018
- 190JournalThe Origin of Locomotive Class NamesG.H. Gaskell — 1952
- 191ThesisThe content of the Mighty Morphin Power Rangers as the source of antisocial and prosocial learningCynthia J. Wilhelmi — University of Nebraska at Omaha — 1996
- 192How They Became... MastodonDavid Marchese — 2010
- 193MagazineThousands Have Joined Mastodon Since Twitter Changed Hands. Its Founder Has a Vision for Democratizing Social MediaBilly Perrigo — 2020