Marshal of the Empire
The word Marshal traces its roots back to the Carolingians, from the ancient German word marascahl, a stable supervisor who took care of the king's horses. With the growing importance of the battle horse during the early Middle Age, the role came to acquire some prestige and began to be known as Marshal of France. Albéric Clément led King Philippe-Auguste's vanguard during the victory over the English at Bouvines in 1214, marking him as the first recorded incumbent. At first, the role was granted to a single person, but three decades after Bouvines, Louis IX of France set sail for the 1248 Crusade with two Marshals. As early as the 15th century, the Marshals no longer cared for the King's horses and stables, and were simply military leaders. Although the position remained highly prestigious, their number grew throughout the centuries, with Louis XIV naming as many as 51 Marshals during his 72-year reign. In the years leading to the French Revolution, there were constantly 15, 16 Marshals, but a law of the 4th of March 1791 reduced their number to six and a decree of the 21st of February 1793 abolished the dignity altogether. Eleven years later, Napoleon Bonaparte became Emperor of the French and wanted to institute a military elite for the new French Empire. Article 48 of Title of the 19th of May 1804 sénatus-consulte set up the grand officers of the Empire, among which the highest-standing were the Marshals.
In the Imperial court hierarchy, they came in the fifth rank, behind the Emperor and Empress, the Imperial family, the great dignitaries and the ministers. They were entitled to a special etiquette: whenever the Emperor would write to them, he would call them Mon Cousin, when a third party would write to them, they would be called Monsieur le Maréchal, and when spoken to, they would be called Monseigneur. They were greeted with 13 cannon shots when at their headquarters and 11 when away. They were also entitled to their own personal coat of arms. Although a purely civil dignity reserved to distinguished generals and not a military rank, a Marshal displayed four stars, while the top military rank of the time, the General of Division displayed three. Contrary to a well-established idea and to the representation on most paintings of the time, the Marshal's four stars were silvered, not gilded. A Marshal was required to wear a standard uniform, which was established through decree on the 18th of July 1804 and designed by painter Jean-Baptiste Isabey and designer Charles Percier. Nevertheless, the Marshals often chose to wear either variants of the official uniform or costumes of totally different design. The ultimate distinctive sign of a Marshal was his baton. It was cylindrical, 50 centimetres long and 4 centimetres and a half in diameter, made of wood and covered in dark blue velvet, decorated with golden eagles or honey bees, both Imperial symbols.
The first promotion created eighteen new Marshals of the Empire and coincided with the proclamation of the First French Empire and was used as an opportunity for the new Emperor to strengthen the new regime. The list included 14 names of generals who had served in the armies of the Republic during the French Revolutionary Wars: seven of them were generals who had served directly under Napoleon during his campaigns in Italy and Egypt. Moreover, he was also careful to reward several general officers who had acquired considerable fame and political influence while commanding the armies of the Republic, as well as several highly-promising generals who had held significant divisional commands in the Army of the Rhine. The latter were well known for their largely Republican sentiments and had never served under Napoleon's command. By rewarding them for their military accomplishments, Napoleon sought to gain their loyalty and make sure that they would be supporters, rather than opponents of the new Imperial regime. Overall, the first promotion included 14 names of generals. An initial list was drafted by State Secretary Henri Jacques Guillaume Clarke and later altered by the Emperor. Napoleon added in his own handwriting Murat's name, which was conspicuously absent from Clarke's draft. This was possibly an omission, but there seems to be no evidence to that effect.
Most of the Marshals held significant commands during the Napoleonic Wars, winning some of the most brilliant victories of the entire Napoleonic Wars. Three of them, Jean Lannes, Louis-Nicolas Davout and Louis-Gabriel Suchet, were virtually never defeated in pitched battle, despite fighting in dozens of engagements. While they were not normally expected to lead from the front, they often exposed themselves to great dangers on the battlefields of Europe; three Marshals , Jean Lannes, Jean-Baptiste Bessières and Józef Poniatowski , were killed in action or died as a result of battle wounds. During his five years as a Marshal of the Empire (1809, 1814), Nicolas-Charles Oudinot received seven of a total of 34 battle wounds suffered throughout his career, but went on to live to the then venerable age of 81. Often formidable when serving under the direct command of Napoleon, the Marshals proved to be less effective when having to cooperate in the Emperor's absence. Some repeatedly acted in bad faith when placed under the command of another Marshal, with conflicts sometimes leading to fatal military consequences. After Napoleon's downfall, most of them swore allegiance to the Bourbon Restoration and several went on to hold significant commands and positions.
Among the men who were offered the Marshalate, there was a mix of famous generals, who had commanded the armies of the Republic (Brune, Jourdan, Kellermann, Lefebvre, Masséna), as well as more junior generals, whose command never exceeded division-sized forces (Mortier, Ney, Soult). It even included relatively obscure generals from Napoleon's Italian or Egyptian expeditions, who had recently secured their promotion to the top military rank of General of Division, but had never held significant commands (Bessières, Davout, Lannes). Unsurprisingly, this created a certain degree of discontentment among the more senior commanders. André Masséna was noted for his sardonic remark, There's fourteen of us..., which he muttered when his friends came to congratulate him for his nomination. Auguste Frédéric Louis Viesse de Marmont, then a young general, possibly bitter that he had not been nominated also observed that: If Bessières is a Marshal, then anyone can be. Ironically, Marmont himself was made a Marshal of the Empire in 1809, though it was said he was awarded the distinction for his close friendship with Napoleon as opposed to any great generalship.
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Common questions
What is the origin of the word Marshal in French history?
The word Marshal traces its roots back to the Carolingians from the ancient German word marascahl, which described a stable supervisor who took care of the king's horses. This role acquired prestige during the early Middle Age as battle horses became more important and eventually evolved into the title Marshal of France.
When was the dignity of Marshal abolished by law in France?
A decree of the 21st of February 1793 abolished the dignity of Marshal altogether following a law of the 4th of March 1791 that had reduced their number to six. The position remained active until this abolition before Napoleon Bonaparte reestablished it eleven years later as part of his new Empire.
How many stars did a Marshal of the Empire wear on their uniform compared to other ranks?
A Marshal displayed four silvered stars while the top military rank of the time known as General of Division displayed three stars. Contrary to most paintings of the time these four stars were silvered rather than gilded according to historical records.
Which Marshals of the Empire died in action or from battle wounds?
Three Marshals including Jean Lannes, Jean-Baptiste Bessières and Józef Poniatowski were killed in action or died as a result of battle wounds during the Napoleonic Wars. These officers often exposed themselves to great dangers on European battlefields despite not being normally expected to lead from the front.
Who became kings after serving as Marshals of the Empire under Napoleon?
Two Marshals Joachim Murat and Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte went on to become kings with the latter being the direct ancestor of the current Swedish royal family. This transition occurred among men who held significant commands during the French Revolutionary Wars and received promotions for their military accomplishments.